"Then the prayer makes a prayer something like this: "Our father I dream that we must take a bath and then paint. Even the childrens ... [we must] wash away the bad habits so we won"t get sick from the food we have in front of us!"
"Then everybody go to the river ... no matter if there was a little ice on the water, and take a bath. If they was not near the river they bathed the kids from baskets at Double Springs. The prayer he prayed for pine nut, rabbit, and deer."
Suzie d.i.c.k, an ancient Washo woman who claims to have reached the century mark in 1959, recalls that Captain Jim was her mother"s sister"s son and that she called him brother. He was a big man in a figurative if not a literal sense. He wore eagle feathers on his head and arms. He had red trousers made out of a blanket with feathers on the sides of the legs. As she remembers him at these ceremonies: "He would scare you to death." The a.s.sembled Was...o...b..ought pine nuts, deer meat, megal [Indian tea], and much other food. Captain Jim prayed and gave a sermon, urging everyone to drink water and avoid liquor, and supervised four nights of dancing.
Judging from the age of these two informants, these meetings, which they claim were attended by all the Washo, were held between 1880 and 1900.
Most Washo agree that these large meetings were the way "they did it in the old days." However, "the old days" appear not to be aboriginal but the late nineteenth century, when the Washo experienced a brief period of semi-unity and prosperity.
Rupert, the psychologically oriented shaman comments, "h.e.l.l, them northern Washo didn"t come down to Double Springs very much. They got their pine nuts southeast of Reno. Captain Jim he was only a big man to them Carson Valley Washo. He didn"t have nothing to say to the northern bunch."
Despite this, it seems clear that during the last part of the nineteenth century large numbers of Washo from the various areas did, in fact, gather at Double Springs prior to the pine nutting. It seems equally clear that this was distinctly a postwhite phenomenon and that in aboriginal times such gatherings were much smaller.
The essential elements of these pine-nut ceremonies are clear. There was a gathering of a number of bands, usually at the prompting of a dreamer who knew certain prayers and songs which would insure a successful harvest.
There was a sharing of food among the celebrants, as well as dancing and ceremonial bathing. Such affairs were held in Sierra Valley and at Double Springs and probably at a number of other places in the pine-nut hills.
The large celebrations at Double Springs appear to have taken on a distinctly nativistic or revitalistic cast. Informants remember Captain Jim"s exhortations to abstain from white man"s whiskey, to treat each other as brothers and sisters, to eat Indian food, and to apply themselves to the business of hunting and gathering. He himself refused to wear new white clothing but accepted only used garments. It was during this period that Washo received individual pine-nut allotments based on their traditional picking grounds.
Mooney (1896), whose information on the Washo was filtered through the Paiute, reports the Washo during this period as a shattered remnant of a former society eking out an existence in the dump heaps of white settlements in Nevada. The fact that the Washo did not respond to the Ghost Dance seems in his mind to support his notions about the condition of the tribe. However, among older informants this period is invariably recalled as an almost golden age. Although the implications of movements such as the Ghost Dance were not clear in Mooney"s time, it seems more than likely that the Washo failed to join the movement because they were not suffering the social and cultural dislocation of the Paiute, Plains tribes, or California Indians and, in fact, may have been undergoing a process of social unification under Captain Jim. This unification appears to have had its primary symbolization in the ritual activity which surrounded earlier ceremonies concerned with pine-nut harvesting. The use of a hide string to summon people to the meeting appears earlier as a war signal used by a threatened band to entreat other Washo (often not too successfully) to come to their aid.
With the death of Captain Jim, the large gatherings at Double Springs appear to have ceased. In the words of one informant, "When he died all them things like the knotted string and that stuff died with him."
After his death the pine-nut dances continued to be held in various places in Washo country-Sugar Loaf Mountain, Genoa, and Sierra Valley being the most frequently mentioned. Jim"s daughter (or sister"s daughter) who was married to the claimant Captain Pete and was the mother of the present claimant, Hank Pete, staged a number of dances around Genoa until her death. This action is of interest in view of the fact that she was considered a dangerous woman and a poisoner. It suggests that there was in fact no clear distinction between doctors and witches or sorcerers. Her knowledge of pine-nut prayers and songs made her essential in the ceremony despite the fear the Washo may have had of her.
Since her death in the early 1940"s, pine-nut dances have been less frequent. Only one woman among the Washo is reputed to know all the songs, although I suspect that several others are in possession of this knowledge but refuse to come forth and serve as leaders, in keeping with Washo reluctance to a.s.sume responsible roles.
After a number of years without a dance, the custom was revived in the early 1950"s at Dresslerville. The dances were staged because previous crops had been poor and it was felt a dance would increase the harvest.
These dances, supervised by the woman who knew the songs, were not considered too successful because both Indian dances and white men"s dances were conducted. Indian dances were held outside the community house while younger couples danced in the white manner inside. The prayers, bathing, and dreams played a very minor role, although food was supplied.
From the accounts these dances sounded extremely secular with an emphasis on the recreational aspects, particularly dancing. However, the consensus that the ceremonies were not successful because of the introduction of white-style dancing suggests that the Indian dances still retain some of their former sacred character. It was agreed that a dance might be held today or in the future if the crops were poor. Here again the present economic situation of the Washo tends to limit these affairs to weekends.
The impossibility of holding four-day dances however, is not considered serious by most Washo. Several informants stoutly denied that there was any requirement that the dance last four days. They implied that those who insisted on this were simply trying to make it sound more important (note that using the figure four makes something more important). Their accounts report that the dances might last from one or two days to a week during which time games were played, dances held, and the ritual described earlier carried out. However, there is no doubt that the dances were important to the success of the harvest and the well-being of the harvesters. One informant recalls that: "Sometimes them pine nuts was ripe before the dance. If we picked them then [before the dance], we took a bath every day before we started picking but we didn"t have to do that after the dance."
The following incident ill.u.s.trates the att.i.tude most conservative Washo have toward the pinyon pine. D"Azevedo (personal communication) accompanied an elderly woman to her pine-nut allotment where she discovered that illegal Christmas-tree cutters had topped a number of trees, which she believed destroyed their ability to bear. Her response was of sorrow rather than anger. She sat under her trees for a long time apologizing to her father, from whom she had inherited the plot, and to the spirits of the trees.
There seems to have been little ritual involved in other gathering activities, except for the dances to make the seeds grow mentioned in the element lists (2621). This practice must have been occasional and relatively old, because it is no longer part of the memories of older informants.
MISCELLANEOUS RITUAL
Although modern informants do not remember taboos dealing with hair combing and scratching during menstruation, they do recall being warned against combing their hair at night. "My father used to say that if we did it we"d marry out of the tribe. Mike (her husband) used to tell the same thing to our girls but they didn"t listen and every one of them married out of the tribe."
The dried body of a bat, described as having several different kinds of hair (Lowie 1939, p. 332) was a powerful gambling charm. Professional Indian gamblers, who traveled about the country partic.i.p.ating in the hand game, often carried one. Bat power was considered extremely dangerous if one did not know how to use it. "My daughter found a bat in a field one day, but an old Indian said that if she didn"t know how to treat it, it would eat up her children." Women especially were afraid of bat-talismans and of living bats. The Was...o...b..lieve that a bat charm is also a powerful love medicine and that a woman once touched by such a charm is powerless in the hands of its owner. "You touch a woman with that thing and it hypnotizes her. She follow the guy and die if she don"t go with him. I don"t believe I ever heard of a Washo use one. We"d be too afraid. But them Paiutes and Shoshones use it."
Except for the painting of a girl during her p.u.b.erty dance, painting of the face and body had little part in Washo ritualism, although its social significance may have been important (Lowie 1939, p. 304). However, certain other customs of dress and adornment appear to have had religious significance. Eagle feathers and magpie feathers, as well as a bearskin robe, conferred power. A similar notion may explain the use of the skin of the agile and wise long-tailed weasel as a binding for hair braids.
The hooting of an owl or singing of birds at night was considered as a warning of danger or an omen of death.
INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY
The Washo have been exposed to Christianity from two main sources.
Missionary groups have maintained representatives from time to time at one or another of the Washo colonies. A church dominates the appallingly dreary landscape of Dresslerville. Weather and neglect have caused the building to deteriorate. Permanent missionizing efforts apparently have been abandoned. One church group carries on a summer Bible cla.s.s for children and sewing cla.s.ses for women. Funerals are generally conducted by a Christian minister, but this appears to be a sop to white opinion rather than the result of any real desire on the part of the Washo to become Christians. At best they seem to have simply incorporated Christian services as another source of power. It is less than surprising that a people whose main religious emphasis seems to have been on curing or subsistence ritual should have found white doctors useful but white ministers a rather mysterious and superfluous bit of white culture.
The other main source of Christian ideas has been the peyote cult, which includes a roughly Christian version of G.o.d and Christ visualized as the father and the brother. The cross, pictures of Christ, and references to Jesus play a role in peyote ceremonialism. Other investigators (d"Azevedo and Merriam 1951; Stewart 1944) have noted a shift toward Indian tradition in the Washo peyote cult, with an attending reduction of Christian ideas.
The att.i.tude of one Washo woman sums the question up quite well: "I think them peyote people [she was not a peyotist but had encouraged her son to attend a meeting to cure a back injury] believe more what they doing than the white preacher." Her own religion is summed up in her actions. In addition to sending her son to peyote meetings, she had taken her granddaughter to the shaman and is a regular attendant at the church sewing school. She was also the person who waited until the minister left the church to repeat ancient funeral prayers.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
_Abbreviations_
AA: American Anthropologist BAE: Bureau of American Ethnology SI-MC: Smithsonian Inst.i.tution, Miscellaneous Collections UC: University of California Publications UC-AR: Anthropological Records UC-PAAE: American Archaeology and Ethnology
Barrett, Samuel A.
1917. The Washo Indians. Bull. Milwaukee Pub. Mus., Vol. 2, No. 1, pp.
1-52.
Cartwright, W. D.
1952. A Washo Girls" p.u.b.erty Ceremony. Pro. 30th Int. Cong. of Americanists, pp. 136-142. London.
Dangberg, Grace 1927. Washo Texts. UC-PAAE 22:391-443.
d"Azevedo, Warren L., and A. P. Merriam 1957. Washo Peyote Songs. AA 59:615-641.
Freed, Stanley A.
1960. Changing Washo Kinship. UC-AR 14:349-418.
Heizer, Robert F.
1950. Kutsavi, A Great Basin Indian Food. Kroeber Anthro. Papers, No. 2 (Fall), pp. 35-41.
Kroeber, Alfred L.
1907. Religion of the Indians of California. UC-PAA 4:319-356.
Kluckhohn, Clyde, and Dorothea Leighton 1947. The Navaho. Cambridge; London.
Lowie, Robert H.
1939. Ethnographic Notes on the Washo. UC-PAAE 36:301-352.