CALIBRATION OF PIPETTES
PROCEDURE.--Clean the pipette. Draw distilled water into it by sucking at the upper end until the water is well above the graduation mark.
Quickly place the forefinger over the top of the tube, thus preventing the entrance of air and holding the water in the pipette. Cautiously admit a little air by releasing the pressure of the finger, and allow the level of the water to fall until the lowest point of the meniscus is level with the graduation. Hold the water at that point by pressure of the finger and then allow the water to run out from the pipette into a small tared, or weighed, beaker or flask. After a definite time interval, usually two to three minutes, touch the end of the pipette against the side of the beaker or flask to remove any liquid adhering to it (Note 1). The increase in weight of the flask in grams represents the volume of the water in cubic centimeters delivered by the pipette. Calculate the necessary correction.
[Note 1: A definite interval must be allowed for draining, and a definite practice adopted with respect to the removal of the liquid which collects at the end of the tube, if the pipette is designed to deliver a specific volume when emptied. This liquid may be removed at the end of a definite interval either by touching the side of the vessel or by gently blowing out the last drops. Either practice, when adopted, must be uniformly adhered to.]
FLASKS
!Graduated or measuring flasks! are similar to the ordinary flat-bottomed flasks, but are provided with long, narrow necks in order that slight variations in the position of the meniscus with respect to the graduation shall represent a minimum volume of liquid.
The flasks must be of such a capacity that, when filled with the specified volume, the liquid rises well into the neck.
GRADUATION OF FLASKS
It is a general custom to purchase the flasks ungraduated and to graduate them for use under standard conditions selected for the laboratory in question. They may be graduated for "contents" or "delivery." When graduated for "contents" they contain a specified volume when filled to the graduation at a specified temperature, and require to be washed out in order to remove all of the solution from the flask. Flasks graduated for "delivery" will deliver the specified volume of a liquid without rinsing. A flask may, of course, be graduated for both contents and delivery by placing two graduation marks upon it.
PROCEDURE.--To calibrate a flask for !contents!, proceed as follows: Clean the flask, using a chromic acid solution, and dry it carefully outside and inside. Tare it accurately; pour water into the flask until the weight of the latter counterbalances weights on the opposite pan which equal in grams the number of cubic centimeters of water which the flask is to contain. Remove any excess of water with the aid of filter paper (Note 1). Take the flask from the balance, stopper it, place it in a bath at the desired temperature, usually 15.5 or 17.5C., and after an hour mark on the neck with a diamond the location of the lowest point of the meniscus (Note 2). The mark may be etched upon the flask by hydrofluoric acid, or by the use of an etching ink now commonly sold on the market.
To graduate a flask which is designed to !deliver! a specified volume, proceed as follows: Clean the flask as usual and wipe all moisture from the outside. Fill it with distilled water. Pour out the water and allow the water to drain from the flask for three minutes.
Counterbalance the flask with weights to the nearest centigram.
Add weights corresponding in grams to the volume desired, and add distilled water to counterbalance these weights. An excess of water, or water adhering to the neck of the flask, may be removed by means of a strip of clean filter paper. Stopper the flask, place it in a bath at 15.5C. or 17.5C. and, after an hour, mark the location of the lowest point of the meniscus, as described above.
[Note 1: The allowable error in counterbalancing the water and weights varies with the volume of the flask. It should not exceed one ten-thousandth of the weight of water.]
[Note 2: Other methods are employed which involve the use of calibrated apparatus from which the desired volume of water may be run into the dry flask and the position of the meniscus marked directly upon it. For a description of a procedure which is most convenient when many flasks are to be calibrated, the student is referred to the !Am. Chem J.!, 16, 479.]
GENERAL DIRECTIONS FOR VOLUMETRIC a.n.a.lYSES
It cannot be too strongly emphasized that for the success of a.n.a.lyses uniformity of practice must prevail throughout all volumetric work with respect to those factors which can influence the accuracy of the measurement of liquids. For example, whatever conditions are imposed during the calibration of a burette, pipette, or flask (notably the time allowed for draining), must also prevail whenever the flask or burette is used.
The student should also be constantly watchful to insure parallel conditions during both standardization and a.n.a.lyst with respect to the final volume of liquid in which a t.i.tration takes place. The value of a standard solution is only accurate under the conditions which prevailed when it was standardized. It is plain that the standard solutions must be scrupulously protected from concentration or dilution, after their value has been established. Accordingly, great care must be taken to thoroughly rinse out all burettes, flasks, etc., with the solutions which they are to contain, in order to remove all traces of water or other liquid which could act as a diluent. It is best to wash out a burette at least three times with small portions of a solution, allowing each to run out through the tip before a.s.suming that the burette is in a condition to be filled and used. It is, of course, possible to dry measuring instruments in a hot closet, but this is tedious and unnecessary.
To the same end, all solutions should be kept stoppered and away from direct sunlight or heat. The bottles should be shaken before use to collect any liquid which may have distilled from the solution and condensed on the sides.
The student is again reminded that variations in temperature of volumetric solutions must be carefully noted, and care should always be taken that no source of heat is sufficiently near the solutions to raise the temperature during use.
Much time may be saved by estimating the approximate volume of a standard solution which will be required for a t.i.tration (if the data are obtainable) before beginning the operation. It is then possible to run in rapidly approximately the required amount, after which it is only necessary to determine the end-point slowly and with accuracy.
In such cases, however, the knowledge of the approximate amount to be required should never be allowed to influence the judgment regarding the actual end-point.
STANDARD SOLUTIONS
The strength or value of a solution for a specific reaction is determined by a procedure called !Standardization!, in which the solution is brought into reaction with a definite weight of a substance of known purity. For example, a definite weight of pure sodium carbonate may be dissolved in water, and the volume of a solution of hydrochloric acid necessary to exactly neutralize the carbonate accurately determined. From these data the strength or value of the acid is known. It is then a !standard solution!.
NORMAL SOLUTIONS
Standard solutions may be made of a purely empirical strength dictated solely by convenience of manipulation, or the concentration may be chosen with reference to a system which is applicable to all solutions, and based upon chemical equivalents. Such solutions are called !Normal Solutions! and contain such an amount of the reacting substance per liter as is equivalent in its chemical action to one gram of hydrogen, or eight grams of oxygen. Solutions containing one half, one tenth, or one one-hundredth of this quant.i.ty per liter are called, respectively, half-normal, tenth-normal, or hundredth-normal solutions.
Since normal solutions of various reagents are all referred to a common standard, they have an advantage not possessed by empirical solutions, namely, that they are exactly equivalent to each other.
Thus, a liter of a normal solution of an acid will exactly neutralize a liter of a normal alkali solution, and a liter of a normal oxidizing solution will exactly react with a liter of a normal reducing solution, and so on.
Beside the advantage of uniformity, the use of normal solutions simplifies the calculations of the results of a.n.a.lyses. This is particularly true if, in connection with the normal solution, the weight of substance for a.n.a.lysis is chosen with reference to the atomic or molecular weight of the const.i.tuent to be determined. (See problem 26.)
The preparation of an !exactly! normal, half-normal, or tenth-normal solution requires considerable time and care. It is usually carried out only when a large number of a.n.a.lyses are to be made, or when the a.n.a.lyst has some other specific purpose in view. It is, however, a comparatively easy matter to prepare standard solutions which differ but slightly from the normal or half-normal solution, and these have the advantage of practical equality; that is, two approximately half-normal solutions are more convenient to work with than two which are widely different in strength. It is, however, true that some of the advantage which pertains to the use of normal solutions as regards simplicity of calculations is lost when using these approximate solutions.
The application of these general statements will be made clear in connection with the use of normal solutions in the various types of volumetric processes which follow.
I. NEUTRALIZATION METHODS
ALKALIMETRY AND ACIDIMETRY
GENERAL DISCUSSION
!Standard Acid Solutions! may be prepared from either hydrochloric, sulphuric, or oxalic acid. Hydrochloric acid has the advantage of forming soluble compounds with the alkaline earths, but its solutions cannot be boiled without danger of loss of strength; sulphuric acid solutions may be boiled without loss, but the acid forms insoluble sulphates with three of the alkaline earths; oxalic acid can be accurately weighed for the preparation of solutions, and its solutions may be boiled without loss, but it forms insoluble oxalates with three of the alkaline earths and cannot be used with certain of the indicators.
!Standard Alkali Solutions! may be prepared from sodium or pota.s.sium hydroxide, sodium carbonate, barium hydroxide, or ammonia. Of sodium and pota.s.sium hydroxide, it may be said that they can be used with all indicators, and their solutions may be boiled, but they absorb carbon dioxide readily and attack the gla.s.s of bottles, thereby losing strength; sodium carbonate may be weighed directly if its purity is a.s.sured, but the presence of carbonic acid from the carbonate is a disadvantage with many indicators; barium hydroxide solutions may be prepared which are entirely free from carbon dioxide, and such solutions immediately show by precipitation any contamination from absorption, but the hydroxide is not freely soluble in water; ammonia does not absorb carbon dioxide as readily as the caustic alkalies, but its solutions cannot be boiled nor can they be used with all indicators. The choice of a solution must depend upon the nature of the work in hand.
A !normal acid solution! should contain in one liter that quant.i.ty of the reagent which represents 1 gram of hydrogen replaceable by a base.
For example, the normal solution of hydrochloric acid (HCl) should contain 36.46 grams of gaseous hydrogen chloride, since that amount furnishes the requisite 1 gram of replaceable hydrogen. On the other hand, the normal solution of sulphuric acid (H_{2}SO_{4}) should contain only 49.03 grams, i.e., one half of its molecular weight in grams.
A !normal alkali solution! should contain sufficient alkali in a liter to replace 1 gram of hydrogen in an acid. This quant.i.ty is represented by the molecular weight in grams (40.01) of sodium hydroxide (NaOH), while a sodium carbonate solution (Na_{2}CO_{3}) should contain but one half the molecular weight in grams (i.e., 53.0 grams) in a liter of normal solution.
Half-normal or tenth-normal solutions are employed in most a.n.a.lyses (except in the case of the less soluble barium hydroxide). Solutions of the latter strength yield more accurate results when small percentages of acid or alkali are to be determined.
INDICATORS
It has already been pointed out that the purpose of an indicator is to mark (usually by a change of color) the point at which just enough of the t.i.trating solution has been added to complete the chemical change which it is intended to bring about. In the neutralization processes which are employed in the measurement of alkalies (!alkalimetry!) or acids (!acidimetry!) the end-point of the reaction should, in principle, be that of complete neutrality. Expressed in terms of ionic reactions, it should be the point at which the H^{+} ions from an acid[Note 1] unite with a corresponding number of OH^{-} ions from a base to form water molecules, as in the equation
H^{+}, Cl^{-} + Na^{+}, OH^{-} --> Na^{+}, Cl^{-} + (H_{2}O).
It is not usually possible to realize this condition of exact neutrality, but it is possible to approach it with sufficient exactness for a.n.a.lytical purposes, since substances are known which, in solution, undergo a sharp change of color as soon as even a minute excess of H^{+} or OH^{-} ions are present. Some, as will be seen, react sharply in the presence of H^{+} ions, and others with OH^{-} ions. These substances employed as indicators are usually organic compounds of complex structure and are closely allied to the dyestuffs in character.
[Note 1: A knowledge on the part of the student of the ionic theory as applied to aqueous solutions of electrolytes is a.s.sumed. A brief outline of the more important applications of the theory is given in the Appendix.]