Area Handbook for Romania.
by Eugene K. Keefe, Donald W. Bernier, Lyle E. Brenneman, William Giloane, James M.
Moore, and Neda A. Walpole.
FOREWORD
This volume is one of a series of handbooks prepared by Foreign Area Studies (FAS) of The American University, designed to be useful to military and other personnel who need a convenient compilation of basic facts about the social, economic, political, and military inst.i.tutions and practices of various countries. The emphasis is on objective description of the nation"s present society and the kinds of possible or probable changes that might be expected in the future. The handbook seeks to present as full and as balanced an integrated exposition as limitations on s.p.a.ce and research time permit. It was compiled from information available in openly published material. An extensive bibliography is provided to permit recourse to other published sources for more detailed information. There has been no attempt to express any specific point of view or to make policy recommendations. The contents of the handbook represent the work of the authors and FAS and do not represent the official view of the United States government.
An effort has been made to make the handbook as comprehensive as possible. It can be expected, however, that the material, interpretations, and conclusions are subject to modification in the light of new information and developments. Such corrections, additions, and suggestions for factual, interpretive, or other change as readers may have will be welcomed for use in future revisions. Comments may be addressed to:
The Director Foreign Area Studies The American University 5010 Wisconsin Avenue, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20016
PREFACE
The former Kingdom of Romania emerged from the post-World War II chaos as the Romanian People"s Republic, a communist satellite so closely aligned to the policies of the Soviet Union that it often appeared to be ruled from Moscow. During the 1950s, however, Romania cautiously began seeking to loosen its ties to Moscow and to a.s.sert some measure of autonomy. The widening Sino-Soviet rift of the early 1960s provided an atmosphere of tension among communist states that the Romanians used to their own advantage by remaining neutral in the communist struggle and by seeking greater contacts with noncommunist states. In internal affairs, the Romanian regime maintained a rigid hold on all elements of the society. In 1965 the regime changed the name of the country to the Socialist Republic of Romania and proclaimed that it was well on the way toward communism. In the early 1970s Romania remains a member of the Soviet-led military and economic alliances but has become known as the most independent member.
The changes wrought by the Communists during a quarter century in power are numerous and far reaching. Despite the desires of the Soviet leaders that Romania remain predominantly agricultural, the new Romanian leadership was determined to industrialize. Enforced socialization and concurrent industrialization brought a host of problems in the political, social, and economic life of the country. Reorientation of the society and the political structure was brought about by force when necessary, but the restructuring of the economy within the framework of the avowed Marxist-Leninist ideology proved to be more difficult and led to problems that had still not been overcome by early 1972.
This handbook attempts to describe the social, political, and economic bases of Romanian society and, more particularly, how these bases have been affected by Romania"s independent stance within the alliances of Eastern European communist countries. The authors of the handbook have tried to be objective in order to provide a comprehensive exposition of the dominant aspects of Romanian life in the early 1970s. Often hampered by a lack of credible statistical information as well as an overabundance of biased propaganda, the authors have attempted to piece together sufficient factual material to present an accurate appraisal and an indication of observable trends.
English usage follows _Webster"s Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary_.
Place names used in the text are those approved by the United States Board on Geographic Names. Tonnages are given in the metric system, but for other measurements standard United States terminology has been used.
The use of Romanian words has been held to a minimum and, where used, they have been explained in the text and in the Glossary, which is appended for the reader"s convenience. The acronym PCR, derived from Partidul Comunist Roman (Romanian Communist Party), is used throughout the book and is fully explained in the Glossary.
COUNTRY SUMMARY
1. COUNTRY: Officially redesignated the Socialist Republic of Romania under Const.i.tution of 1965. Established originally as the Kingdom of Romania in 1881, was converted into the Romanian People"s Republic in 1948 by communist party with Soviet backing.
2. GOVERNMENT: Const.i.tution of 1965 provides for a unicameral legislature and a collegial executive known as the Council of State.
Romanian Communist Party controls elections and runs the government at all levels. Top party officials concurrently occupy top governmental offices. Ultimate political power rests in the party hierarchy, particularly in the person of the party general secretary who, since 1967, has also been head of state.
3. SIZE AND LOCATION: Area of over 91,700 square miles. In southeastern Europe, shares 1,975 miles of demarcated and undisputed land borders with Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Hungary, and the Soviet Union. With 150 miles of sh.o.r.eline, shares riparian rights on Black Sea with Turkey, Bulgaria, and the Soviet Union.
4. TOPOGRAPHY: Terrain is generally irregular. The Transylvania basin in the northwest occupies about one-third of the country and is separated from the plains and lowlands of Walachia, Dobruja, and Moldavia to the south and east by the curving course of the Carpathian Mountains and the Transylvanian Alps, which cut across the central portion of the country.
5. CLIMATE: Generally Eastern European Continental, dominated by high pressure systems from European Soviet Union and north-central Asia.
Little variation or moderation experienced in the prevailing long cold winters and short hot summers.
6. POPULATION: Almost 20.6 million in 1971; annual growth rate of 1.3 percent, among the highest in Eastern Europe. Density more than 224 persons per square mile. Largest minority is Hungarian, comprising 8 percent of population, followed by German, with 2 percent.
7. LANGUAGE: Romanian, the official language, spoken by virtually all elements of the population. Hungarian and German also recognized and utilized in areas of large minority concentrations.
8. LABOR: Working population employed by the state in 1969 numbered about 5 million. About 40 percent were employed in industry; about 51 percent, in agriculture. Women const.i.tuted about 43 percent of the industrial and 57.5 percent of the collective farm labor forces.
9. RELIGION: Freedom of worship is guaranteed by Const.i.tution, but state controls all church activities. About two-thirds of population belong to Romanian Orthodox Church. Importance of Roman Catholic and Protestant minorities enhanced because of their ident.i.ty with Hungarian and German ethnic groups.
10. EDUCATION: Restructured in 1948 into a highly centralized system with a broad base, standardized curricula, mandatory attendance through tenth grade, and heavy emphasis on vocational and technical subjects above the elementary level. Political indoctrination permeates entire system.
11. JUSTICE: Theoretically independent, the three-level court system (local, district, and Supreme Court) functions as part of executive branch. Military tribunals operate as part of system under Supreme Court.
12. ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIONS: Thirty-nine counties, each subdivided into varying numbers of communes, villages, and munic.i.p.alities. Bucharest administered as an independent political ent.i.ty. Governmental functioning ostensibly decentralized, but policy and control exercised by higher state and party organs.
13. ECONOMY: Government controlled, with basic five-year plans patterned on Soviet model. Development hampered by scarcity of raw materials and manufacturing equipment and by insufficient number of experienced workers and managers.
14. AGRICULTURE: About 63 percent of land is agricultural; of this, 65 percent under cultivation. Food production adequate for domestic needs, but exports limited because of insufficient investment and lack of labor incentives.
15. INDUSTRY: Rapid growth since 1950 stimulated by ma.s.sive inputs of capital, labor, and imports of modern machinery and technology. Labor productivity and quality of manufactured products have improved but remain low.
16. FOREIGN ECONOMIC RELATIONS: Foreign trade is state monopoly and is conducted primarily with Soviet Union and East European communist countries. Balance of trade generally negative, reflecting imports of high-quality machinery from West necessary for industrial advancement.
Exports limited to light machinery, foodstuffs, and some consumer goods.
17. FINANCE: Monetary unit is the nonconvertible leu. The to tourist rates of about 16 lei per US$1. Currency and foreign exchange are state controlled, administered through the National Bank.
18. COMMUNICATIONS: All information media party or state owned and controlled. Press and radio more extensively developed than television, but all function as parts of ideological and political indoctrination system.
19. RAILROADS: Important freight and pa.s.senger carrier. About 6,900 miles of trunkline in operation, almost all standard gauge. About 100 miles electrified, and rest of system converting to use of diesel locomotives.
20. HIGHWAYS: Of 47,800 total road mileage, about 6,600 miles nationally maintained as princ.i.p.al operating network. System supplanting railroads as major short-haul carrier of freight and pa.s.sengers.
21. INLAND WATERWAYS: About 1,500 miles of princ.i.p.al rivers and ca.n.a.ls are navigable. Water transport has minor role as a cargo carrier.
22. AIRWAYS: Romanian Air Transport, the state-owned airline, operates domestic service to twelve princ.i.p.al cities and to about twenty national capitals in Europe and the Middle East.
23. PIPELINES: Largest network serves oilfields and moves most liquid petroleum and refined products to refineries and ports. Natural gas lines exist, but mountainous terrain limits general distribution.
24. MERCHANT MARINE: Small in number but operates modern ships and equipment. Transport limited princ.i.p.ally to truck cargo and freight.
25. ARMED FORCES: In 1972 consisted of about 200,000 men organized into ground, naval, air, air defense, and frontier forces, all administered by a single ministry. All elements operate as part of army, which is largest single component.
26. SECURITY: Security forces, nationally organized and centrally controlled by Ministry of Internal Affairs, consist of ordinary police (militia) and security troops, which perform counter-espionage and counter-subversive functions.
27. INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS: Member of the United Nations and a number of its specialized agencies. Member of the Warsaw Treaty Organization (Warsaw Pact) and the Council for Mutual Economic a.s.sistance (COMECON).
SECTION I. SOCIAL