14. So died the great Columbus of the skies.
15. Aeneas did, from the flames of Troy, upon his shoulders, the old Anchises bear.
16. Such a heart in the breast of my people beats.
17. The great fire up the deep and wide chimney roared.
18. Ease and grace in writing are, of all the acquisitions made in school, the most difficult and valuable.
Pupils may read or write the following sentences in the transposed order, and explain the effect of the change:--
19. He could not avoid it.
20. He would not escape.
21. I must go.
22. He ended his tale here.
23. It stands written so.
24. She seemed young and sad.
25. I will make one more effort to save you.
26. My regrets were bitter and unavailing.
27. I came into the world helpless.
28. A sincere word was never utterly lost.
29. Catiline shall no longer plot her ruin.
ORDER OF INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES.
30. Who wrote the Declaration of Independence?
31. What states border on the Gulf of Mexico?
32. Whom did you see?
33. What is poetry?
34. Which course will you choose?
35. Why are the days shorter in winter?
36. When was America discovered?
37. Were you there?
38. Has the North Pole been reached?
+Observation Lesson+.--When the interrogative word is subject or a modifier of it, is the order natural, or transposed? See (30) and (31) above.
When the interrogative word is object or attribute complement, or a modifier of either, what is the order? See (32), (33), and (34).
When the interrogative word is an adverb, what is the order? See (35) and (36).
When there is no interrogative word, what is the order? See (37) and (38).
The sentences above will furnish profitable review lessons in _a.n.a.lysis_.
REVIEW--COMPOSITION.
We suggest that, from two or more paragraphs of some interesting and instructive article, leading sentences be selected, and that the pupils be required to explain the office and the punctuation of the easier adjective and adverb phrases, to vary the arrangement in every possible way, and to discuss the effects of these changes. Then, after finding the general subject and the heading for each paragraph, the pupils may arrange these sentences and work them into a composition, making such additions as may be suggested.
RESTRICTIVE MODIFIERS--PUNCTUATION.
The chief difficulty in the punctuation of the different kinds of modifiers is in determining whether or not they are restrictive. The following examples may serve as the basis of an observation lesson:--
(_a_) The words _golden_ and _oriole_ are pleasant to the ear.
(_b_) Words, the signs of ideas, are spoken and written.
(_c_) Use words that are current.
(_d_) Words, which are the signs of ideas, are spoken and written.
(_e_) The country anciently called Gaul is now called France.
(_f_) France, anciently called Gaul, derived its name from the Franks.
(_g_) Gla.s.s bends easily when it is hot.
(_h_) I met him in Paris, when I was last abroad.
The following explanations may be drawn from the pupils:--
In (_a_) the application of _words_ is limited, or restricted, to the two words mentioned; in (_c_) _words_ is restricted to a certain kind. In (_b_) and (_d_) the modifiers do not restrict. They apply to all words and simply add information. In (_e_) the participial phrase restricts the application of _country_ to one particular country; but in (_f_) the phrase describes without limiting. The omission of the comma in (_g_) shows that _Gla.s.s bends easily_ is not offered as a general statement, but that the action is restricted to a certain time or condition. _When it is hot_ is essential to the intended meaning. The punctuation of (_h_) shows that the speaker does not wish to make the time of meeting a prominent or essential part of what he has to say. The adverb clause simply gives additional information. If (_h_) were an answer to the question, When did you meet him? the comma would be omitted. The sense may be varied by the use or the omission of the comma.
Let the pupils see how incomplete the statements are when the restrictive modifiers are omitted, and that the other modifiers are not so necessary to the sense. In such expressions as _I myself, we boys_, the explanatory words are not restrictive, but they combine closely with the modified term.
ADJECTIVE CLAUSES.
Adjective clauses allow little change in position. They usually follow closely the word modified. Often they may be contracted into adjectives or into adjective phrases.
Selections from standard writers may be made with special reference to the study of adjective clauses. The position, punctuation, and choice of relatives may be noticed, and, as far as possible, the clauses may be changed into equivalent adjectives or into phrases.
ADVERB CLAUSES.
An adverb clause may stand before the independent clause, between its parts, or after it; as, "When it is hot, gla.s.s bends easily;" "Gla.s.s, when it is hot, bends easily;" "Gla.s.s bends easily when it is hot." Notice the punctuation of these examples.
Adverb clauses may be contracted in various ways. Clauses introduced by the comparatives _as_ and _than_ are usually found in an abbreviated form; as, "You are as old _as_ he (_is old_);" "You are older _than_ I (_am old_)."
Attention may be called to the danger of mistaking here the nominative for the objective. We suggest making selections for the study of adverb clauses.
NOUN CLAUSES.
Noun clauses may be contracted; as, "_That we should obey_ is necessary" = "_Obedience_ is necessary," or, "_To obey_ is necessary;" "I can hardly realize _that my friend is gone_" = "I can hardly realize _my friend"s being gone_." By subst.i.tuting _it_ for the subject clause, this clause maybe placed last and made explanatory; as, "_It_ is necessary _that we should obey_." The object clause is sometimes transposed; as, "_That my friend is gone_, I can hardly realize." The noun clause may be made prominent by introducing the independent clause parenthetically; as,"_His story_, we believe, _is exaggerated_."
Notice the punctuation of the clauses above. The noun clause used as attribute complement is generally set off by the comma. Noun clauses that are quotations need special treatment.
NOUN CLAUSES--QUOTATIONS.
We suggest the following observation lesson:--
1. Goldsmith says, "Learn the luxury of doing good."
2. Goldsmith says that we should learn the luxury of doing good.
3. "The owlet Atheism, hooting at the glorious sun in heaven, cries out, "Where is it?""
4. Coleridge compares atheism to an owlet hooting at the sun, and asking where it is.
5. "To read without reflecting," says Burke, "is like eating without digesting."
6. May we not find "sermons in stones and good in everything"?
7. There is much meaning in the following quotation: "Books are embalmed minds."
8. We must ask, What are we living for?
9. We must ask what we are living for.
+Observation Lesson+.--Notice that the writer of (1) has copied into his sentence (quoted) the exact language of Goldsmith. The two marks like inverted commas and the two marks like apostrophes, which inclose this copied pa.s.sage (quotation), are called _Quotation Marks_.