Name all the differences between (1) and (2). Is the same thought expressed in both? Which quotation would you call _direct?_ Which, _indirect?_
Notice that the whole of (3) is a quotation, and that this quotation contains another quotation inclosed within _single marks_. Notice the order of the marks at the end of (3).
Point out the differences between (3) and (4). In which is a question quoted just as it would be asked? In which is a question merely referred to? Which question would you call _direct?_ Which, _indirect_? Name every difference in the form of these.
In which of the above sentences is a quotation interrupted by a parenthetical clause? How are the parts marked?
Point out a quotation that cannot make complete sense by itself. How does it differ from the others as to punctuation and the first letter?
In (7) a _Colon_ precedes the quotation to show that it is _formally introduced_.
In (8) a question is introduced without quotation marks. Questions that, like this, are introduced without being referred to any particular person or persons, are often written without quotation marks. State the differences between (8) and (9).
In quoting a question, the interrogation point must stand within the quotation marks; but, when a question contains a quotation, this order is reversed. Point out ill.u.s.trations above.
Sum up what you have learned. (See rules for capitals, comma, colon, and quotation marks, pp. 140-143.)
Selections written in the colloquial style and containing frequent quotations and questions may be taken from reading-books, for examination, discussion, and copying. Noun phrases may be expanded, and noun clauses contracted, transposed, etc.
INDEPENDENT CLAUSES.
Frequently independent clauses are contracted by using repeated parts but once and uniting the other parts into a compound term, as in Lesson 67.
They are also contracted by omitting such words as may be readily understood; as, "Is it true, or _not;_" "He is a philosopher, _not a poet_." For punctuation, see rules for the comma and the semicolon, p. 141.
REVIEW--COMPOSITION.
We recommend that the teacher select some short article containing valuable information and break up each paragraph into short, disconnected expressions. One paragraph at a time may be put on the board for the pupils to copy. The general subject may be given, and the pupils may be required to find a proper heading for the paragraph. The different ways of connecting the expressions may be discussed in the cla.s.s. By contracting, expanding, transposing, and by subst.i.tuting entirely different words, a great variety of forms may be had. (The forms found in the "Example," p.
144, and the list of connectives, p. 190, may be helpful.) The pupils may then combine the different paragraphs into a composition. For the explanation of _paragraph_, see p. 145, and Exercises for Composition in the Supplement.
We give below material for one composition:--
Frog"s sp.a.w.n found in a pond. At first like a ma.s.s of jelly. Eggs can be distinguished.
In a few days curious little fish are hatched. These "tadpoles" are lively.
Swim by means of long tails. Head very large--out of proportion. Appearance of all head and tail. This creature is a true fish. It breathes water-air by means of gills. It has a two-chambered heart.
Watch it day by day. Two little gills seen. These soon disappear. Hind legs begin to grow. Tail gets smaller. Two small arms, or forelegs, are seen.
Remarkable change going on inside. True lungs for breathing air have been forming. Another chamber added to the heart.
As the gills grow smaller, it finds difficulty in breathing water-air. One fine day it pokes its nose out of the water. Astonished (possibly) to find that it can breathe in the air. A new life has come upon it. No particular reason for spending all its time in water; crawls out upon land; sits down upon its haunches; surveys the world. It is no longer a fish; has entered upon a higher stage of existence; has become a frog.
This work of a.n.a.lyzing a composition to find the leading thoughts under which the other thoughts may be grouped is in many ways a most valuable discipline.
It teaches the pupil to compare, to discriminate, to weigh, to systematize, to read intelligently and profitably.
The reading-book will afford excellent practice in finding heads for paragraphs. Such work is an essential preparation for the reading-cla.s.s.
This composition work should serve as a constant review of all that has been pa.s.sed over in the text-book.
ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS AND ADVERBS.
It is often difficult to distinguish an adjective complement from an adverb modifier. We offer the following explanation:--
"Mary arrived _safe_." As we here wish to tell the condition of Mary on her arrival, and _not_ the _manner_ of her arriving, we use _safe_, not _safely_. "My head feels _bad_" (is in a bad condition, as perceived by the sense of feeling). "The sun shines _bright_" (is bright--quality,--as perceived by its shining).
You must determine whether you wish to tell the _quality_ of the thing named or the _manner_ of the action.
When the idea of being is prominent in the verb, as in the examples above, you see that the adjective, and not the adverb, follows.
Let the pupils show that the following adjectives and adverbs are used correctly:--
1. I feel sad.
2. I feel deeply.
3. I feel miserable.
4. He appeared prompt and willing.
5. He appeared promptly and willingly.
6. She looks beautiful.
7. She sings beautifully.
PAST PARTICIPLES AND PREDICATE VERBS DISTINGUISHED.
When the past tense and the past participle differ in form, they are often confounded in use; as,
I _done_ it; I _seen_ it.
Pupils may be required to construct short sentences, oral or written, using the _Past_ forms found in Lesson 91 as predicates, and the _Past Participle_ forms either as modifiers or as completing words in compound verbs.
They may be led to some such conclusion as the following:--
The _Past_ is always an a.s.serting, or predicate, word; the _Past Participle_ never a.s.serts, but is used as an adjective modifier or as the completing word of a compound verb; the _Present_ may be used as a predicate or as an infinitive.
Exercises like the following may be copied, and repeated aloud:--
1. _Lay_ down your pen.
2. _Lie_ down, Rover.
3. I _laid_ down my pen.
4. The dog then _lay_ down.
5. I have _laid_ down my pen.
6. The dog has _lain_ down.
7. _Set_ the pail down.
8. _Sit_ down and rest.
9. I then _set_ it down.
10. I _sat_ down and rested.
11. I have _set_ it down.
12. I have _sat_ down.
13. My work was _laid_ aside.
14. I was _lying_ down.
15. The trap was _set_ by the river.
16. I was _sitting_ by the river.