+viz.+ (_videlicet_), To wit, namely.
+vol.+, Volume.
+vs.+ (_versus_), Against.
+Vt.+, Vermont.
+W.+, West.
+Wash.+, Washington.
+Wed.+, Wednesday.
+Wis.+, Wisconsin.
+wk.+, Weeks.
+Wm.+, William.
+W. N. W.+, West-northwest.
+W. S. W.+, West-southwest.
+W. Va.+, West Virginia.
+Wyo.+, Wyoming.
+Xmas.+, Christmas.
+yd.+, Yards.
+y.+ or +yr.+, Years.
+Zech.+, Zechariah.
+& Co.+, And Company.
SUPPLEMENT.
+Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph+.
SELECTION FROM DARWIN.
Morren says that angleworms often lie for hours almost motionless close beneath the mouths of their burrows. I have occasionally noticed the same fact with worms kept in pots in the house; so that by looking down into their burrows their heads could just be seen. If the ejected earth or rubbish over the burrows be suddenly removed, the end of the worm"s body may very often be seen rapidly retreating.
This habit of lying near the surface leads to their destruction to an immense extent. Every morning, during certain seasons of the year, the thrushes and blackbirds on all the lawns throughout the country draw out of their holes an astonishing number of worms; and this they could not do unless they lay close to the surface.
It is not probable that worms behave in this manner for the sake of breathing fresh air, for they can live for a long time under water. I believe that they lie near the surface for the sake of warmth, especially in the morning; and we shall hereafter find that they often coat the mouths of their burrows with leaves, apparently to prevent their bodies from coming into close contact with the cold, damp earth.
+The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.--We will break up Mr. Darwin"s first group of sentences into single sentences or single statements, each having but one predicate verb.
1. Angleworms often lie for hours almost motionless close beneath the mouths of their burrows. 2. Morren says this. 3. I have occasionally noticed the same fact with worms kept in pots in the house. 4. By looking down into their burrows their heads could just be seen. 5. The ejected earth or rubbish over the burrows may suddenly be removed. 6. The end of the worm"s body may then very often be seen rapidly retreating.
Find the two chief words (subject and predicate) in 1. What does _often_ do? What does the group of words _for hours_ do? The group _almost motionless_ describes what things? The group _close beneath the mouths of their burrows_, used like a single adverb, tells what? Find the two chief words in 2. _This_ helps out the meaning of _says_, but it is not an adverb. _This_ is here a p.r.o.noun standing for the thing said. What whole sentence does _this_ take the place of? Find the subject and the predicate verb in 3. What noun follows this verb to tell what Mr. Darwin noticed?
What does _occasionally_ do? What does _same_ go with? What group of eight words tells in what way Mr. Darwin noticed this fact? Find the unmodified subject and predicate in 4. What does the second _their_ go with? What does _by looking down into their burrows_ tell? What does _just_ do? In 5, put _what_ before _may be removed_, and find two words either of which may be used as subject. What is the office of _the_, _ejected_, and the group _over the burrows_? What does _suddenly_ do? Find the subject and the predicate verb in 6. _Retreating_ helps out the meaning of the predicate and at the same time modifies the subject. Notice that _the end rapidly retreating_ is not a sentence, nor is _worms kept in pots_, in 3.
_Retreating_ and _kept_ here express action, but they are not predicates; they do not a.s.sert. You learned in Lesson 16 that certain forms of the verb do not a.s.sert. _Of the worm"s body_ modifies what? _Then_ and _very often_ do what?
If you will compare these numbered sentences with Mr. Darwin"s, you will see how two or more sentences are put together to make one longer sentence.
You see Mr. Darwin puts our sentence 1 after _says_ to tell what Morren says. What word here helps to bring two sentences together? Change this sentence about so as to make _says Morren_ come last. See how many other changes you can make in the arrangement of the words and groups of words in this sentence. What two words are used to join 3 and 4 together? Notice that these sentences are not joined so closely as 1 and 2, as is shown by the semi-colon. Notice that _if_ has much to do in joining 5 and 6. These are more closely joined than 3 and 4, but not so closely as 1 and 2. How is this shown by the punctuation? Put 5 and 6 together and change their order.
Find, if you can, still another arrangement.
+To the Teacher+.--It is very important that pupils should learn to see words in groups and to note their offices. If difficulties and technicalities be avoided, such exercises as we suggest above may be begun very early. They will lead to an intelligent observation of language and will prepare the way for the more formal lessons of the text-book.
If time can be had, such exercises may profitably be continued through the second and third paragraphs of the selection above.
We have said elsewhere that the sentence exercises on this selection from Darwin may follow Lesson 30, but the teacher must determine.
+The Paragraph+.--If we write about only one thing, or one point, our sentences will be closely related to each other. If we write on two or more points, there will be two or more sets of sentences--the sentences of each set closely related to one another, but the sets themselves not so closely related. A group of sentences expressing what we have to say on a single point, or division, of our subject is called a +paragraph+. How many paragraphs do you find in the selection above? How are they separated on the page?
Let us examine this selection more carefully to find whether the sentences of each group are all on a single point and closely related, and whether the groups themselves are related. Do the sentences of the first paragraph all help to tell of a certain habit of angleworms? Do the sentences of the second paragraph tell what results from this habit? Do the sentences of the third paragraph tell what is thought to be the cause of this habit? If you can say yes to these questions, the sentences in each paragraph must be closely related. Are a habit, a result of it, and a cause of it related in thought, or meaning? If so, the paragraphs are related.
You must now see that paragraphing helps both the reader and the writer, and that we should master it.
+The Style+.--We shall not here say much about what we may call the style of the author--his way of putting his thought, or manner of expressing it.
But this you will notice: his words are few, plain, and simple; the arrangement of them is easy; and so what is said is said clearly. You are nowhere in doubt about his meaning unless it be in the second paragraph. It may puzzle you to see what _their_, _they_, and _they_ in the second sentence of this paragraph stand for. Let _an astonishing number of worms_ and _out of their holes_ change places, and subst.i.tute _birds_ and _worms_ for _they_ and _they_, and see whether the meaning would be clearer.
Clearness is worth all it costs. You cannot take too much pains to be understood.
+First-hand Knowledge+.--As you know, we get our knowledge in two ways. We get it by seeing and by thinking about what we see; and we get it by listening to other people and reading what they have written. What we get by seeing, by observation, is first-hand knowledge; what we get from others is second-hand knowledge. Both kinds are useful; we cannot have too much of either. But the kind that it does us most good to get and is worth most to us when got is first-hand knowledge. This especially is the kind which you should make your compositions of. In the first two paragraphs of the selection above, Darwin is telling what he saw, and in the third he is explaining what he saw. That is why what he says is so fresh and interesting.
And just one thing more. If such a man as Charles Darwin thought it worth his while to spend much time in studying and experimenting upon angleworms and then to write a large book about them, surely you need not think anything in nature beneath your notice.
ORIGINAL COMPOSITION.
Tell in two or three short paragraphs what you have observed of some worm, insect, or other creature, and what you think about it.
+To the Teacher+.--We suggest that what is said above be read by the pupils and discussed in the cla.s.s, and that the substance of it be reproduced in the pupils" own language. Such reproduction will serve as a lesson in oral composition.
It may be profitable for the pupils to reproduce the selection from Darwin.
+Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph+.
SELECTION FROM HABBERTON--"HELEN"S BABIES."
The whistles completed, I was marched with music to the place where the "Jacks" grew. It was just such a place as boys delight in--low, damp, and boggy, with a brook hidden away under overhanging ferns and gra.s.ses.
1. The children knew by sight the plant that bore the "Jacks," and every discovery was announced by a piercing shriek of delight. 2. At first I looked hurriedly toward the brook as each yell clove the air; but, as I became accustomed to it, my attention was diverted by some exquisite ferns.
3. Suddenly, however, a succession of shrieks announced that something was wrong, and across a large fern I saw a small face in a great deal of agony.
4. Budge was hurrying to the relief of his brother, and was soon as deeply imbedded as Toddie was in the rich, black mud at the bottom of the brook.
5. I dashed to the rescue, stood astride the brook, and offered a hand to each boy, when a treacherous tuft of gra.s.s gave way, and, with a glorious splash, I went in myself.
This accident turned Toddie"s sorrow to laughter, but I can"t say I made light of my misfortune on that account. To fall into _clear_ water is not pleasant, even when one is trout-fishing; but to be clad in white trousers and suddenly drop nearly knee-deep into the lap of mother earth is quite a different thing.
I hastily picked up the children and threw them upon the bank, and then strode out, and tried to shake myself, as I have seen a Newfoundland dog do. The shake was not a success--it caused my trouser"s legs to flap dismally about my ankles, and sent the streams of treacherous ooze trickling down into my shoes. My hat, of drab felt, had fallen off by the brookside, and been plentifully spattered as I got out.
+The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.--We will put the first paragraph above into single sentences.
1. The whistles completed, we were marched with music to the place. 2. The "Jacks" grew in this place. 3. It was a place low, damp, and boggy, with a brook hidden away under overhanging ferns and gra.s.ses. 4. Boys delight in such a place.
Find the subject noun (or p.r.o.noun) and the predicate verb in each of the four sentences above. Does _the whistles completed_ make complete sense?
You learned in Lesson 16 that some forms of the verb do not a.s.sert--cannot be predicates. Does _brook hidden_, in 3, contain a predicate? What can you say of _hidden?_ Find a noun in 3 used to complete the predicate and make the meaning of the subject plainer. What group of adjectives modifies _place_? Tell why these three adjectives are separated by commas. What long phrase describes _place_?
Find the first verb in the second paragraph of the selection. What is the object complement of this verb? _That bore the "Jacks"_ does what? The p.r.o.noun _that_ stands for _plant_. _The plant bore the "Jacks,"_ standing by itself, is a complete sentence; but by using _that_ for _plant_ the whole expression is made to do the work of an adjective. What conjunction joins on another expression that by itself would make a complete sentence?
What are the subject and the predicate of this added sentence? _By a piercing shriek of delight_ does what? Of what use are the phrases _at first_ and _toward the brook_ in sentence 2? What group of words is joined to _looked_ to tell on what occasion or how often? Find in this group a subject, a predicate, and an object complement. What connects this group to _looked_? What two sentences does _but_ here bring together? Does the semicolon show that this connection is close? Point out what you think to be the leading subject and the leading verb after _but_. _By some exquisite ferns_ is joined to what? What group of words goes with _was diverted_ to tell when? Find in this group a subject, a predicate, and an attribute complement. Point out in the first part of 3 the leading subject and its verb. What does _suddenly_ go with? What does _of shrieks_ modify?
_However_ is loosely thrown in to carry the attention back to what goes before. Notice the commas. Answer the question made by putting _what_ after _announced_. In this group of words used as object complement can you find a subject, a predicate, and a complement? What two sentences does _and_ here bring together? Point out the subject, the predicate, and the complement in the second of these. _Across a large fern_ is joined like an adverb to what? _In a great deal of agony_ modifies what? Find a compound predicate in 4. What phrase is joined to _was imbedded_ to tell where? The group of words _as deeply as Toddie was (imbedded)_ is joined to what? Find in 5 a compound predicate made up of three verbs, one of which has an object complement.
+To the Teacher+.--See suggestions with the preceding selection. If our exercises on the second paragraph above are found too hard, the compound and complex sentences may be broken up into single statements.