The trouble in Bombay arose out of the taking of Salsette, and involved conflict with the Mahrattas, who had persisted in refusing possession of it to the English.
The state of affairs amongst the Mahrattas was at this time confusion itself. Ragonath-Rao had been made regent by Baji-Rao, who, it will be remembered, had died during his son"s minority of grief, after the fatal day of Panipat. The boy Peishwa had since been murdered; conspirators had declared that his wife had borne a son; claims and counterclaims, intrigue and counter-intrigue, had reduced the Mahratta Government to an invertebrate condition, which the Bombay Council considered favourable to their earnest desire to keep the Portuguese from again acquiring the peninsula (or island) of Salsette, which virtually commands the harbour at Bombay. They therefore temporarily annexed Salsette, and made its cession the foundation of an offer to aid Ragonath-Rao (commonly called Ragoba), who was then in very low water, against the opposite faction. The temptation was great; a treaty was signed, by which the East India Company, in addition to gaining Salsette and Ba.s.sein, were to be paid 225,000.
But here the Supreme Council at Calcutta intervened--why, it is impossible to say--declared in one breath that the treaty with Ragoba was "unpolitic, unreasonable, unjust, and unauthorised," and advised one with the opposite faction.
The quarrel, as usual, becomes complicated in the extreme, and is rendered more confused than it need have been, even in those days of bewilderment, by the double interference from Calcutta and from England. Considering that about six months was necessary to secure a reply from the former place, and about two years from the latter, it is marvellous how any action at all could be decided upon. In the end, however, a treaty was signed with Ragoba"s enemies, which raised great indignation in Bombay, not because it involved any breach of honour, but because it brought in less to the Treasury.
Warren Hastings, however, was now busy over financial reforms, and despite the quibbling and captious criticism of the Triumvirate, evolved a scheme which showed real grip of the problem at issue, as indeed might have been expected from a man of his intelligence and vast Indian experience. It was, however, rejected by the Three, who at the same time excused themselves from suggesting any other scheme, because they were not "sufficiently qualified by local observation and experience to undertake so difficult a task."
Surely fatuousness could no farther go? We have here men who consider themselves qualified to criticise, while they admit total ignorance of the subject criticised!
Stung, no doubt, by this obvious retort, Mr Francis finally produced a scheme--a scheme which, containing as it does the very first inception of the "Great Mistake" which has dogged the footsteps of England in her dealings with India, had better have been hanged like a millstone round its promulgator"s neck, and he drowned in the sea, than that it should ever have seen the light.
For amid quotations, no doubt, from Adam Smith and Mirabeau--the latter in French, after his usual wont--Philip Francis, mastertype of the self-satisfied Western mind--the mind which degenerates so easily into that of the crank, the faddist--started the cardinal error of all errors in India; that is, the statement that the property of the land is not vested in the Sovereign power, but belonged to the people.
Looking down the years, seeing the manifold evils which this pernicious engrafting of Western ideals on Eastern actions has produced; the alienation of the land, the hopeless slavery of the cultivator to the money-lender, the harsh evictions rendered necessary by the loss of the tenant"s credit (which had ever been due to his _unalterable_ hold on the land, combined with his _inability to sell it_), one can but wish that the millstone had done its work!
The evil, however, was scotched for the moment. Colonel Monson died, and Warren Hastings, by his casting vote as Governor, now ceased to be in the minority.
He immediately used his newly-acquired ascendency to appoint what was practically the first Settlement Commission in India. That is to say, a body of tried and experienced officers, who should "furnish accurate statements of the values of lands, uniform in design, and of authority in the execution," which should serve as a basis for revenue, and would also "a.s.sure the ryots (peasants) against arbitrary exactions,"
and "give them perpetual and undisturbed possessions of their lands."
"This," he goes on to say in his Minute, "is not to be done by proclamations and edicts, nor by indulgences to _zemindars_ (large proprietors) or farmers. The former will not be obeyed unless enforced by regulations so framed as to produce their own effect without requiring the hand of Government to interpose its support; and the latter, though they may feed the luxury of the _zemindars_ or the rapacity of the farmers, will prove no relief to the cultivator, _whose welfare ought to be the immediate and primary care of Government_."
Bravo, Warren Hastings! If there was anything to forgive, one would forgive much for the sake of such a creed.
His success spread consternation amongst his enemies. Something must be done, and done quickly.
One Colonel Macleane had gone home, arriving in February 1776. In a moment of great depression in the previous year, Warren Hastings had entrusted him with a letter of instruction to be conveyed to the Directors, in which he declared that he "would not continue in the Government of Bengal unless certain conditions" were accepted.
No use was made of this letter till the 10th October, when, after a stormy attempt on the part of the Company to oust Warren Hastings, Colonel Macleane wrote announcing that he held the Governor-General"s resignation!
These are the bald facts. Eager to catch at any excuse for the removal of an opponent, the resignation, absolutely unauthorised, wholly tentative, was accepted without any discussion of the conditions, and a Mr Wheler appointed as successor.
The English mail of the 19th of June 1777 which conveyed this astounding piece of news to Calcutta took almost every one by surprise; except, apparently, General Clavering and Mr Francis. At any rate, on the very next day the former boldly issued orders signed "Clavering, Governor-General," and requested delivery from Mr Hastings of the keys.
A free fight indeed! That day _two_ councils were held: one by General Clavering, with Mr Francis as sole supporter; one by Warren Hastings and the ever faithful Mr Barwell.
Could animosity, pitiful squabbling, disreputable intrigue, further go?
Luckily, there was another power in Calcutta capable of deciding the rival claims, and to it Mr Hastings, ever inclined to toleration, appealed.
The Supreme Court decided unanimously in favour of Warren Hastings, and so the matter ended for a time; Mr Wheler, who had come out to be Governor-General, taking Colonel Monson"s place, and, naturally, restoring the Triumvirate, which, however, after a brief interval, dwindled again by the death of General Clavering.
All this is very petty, very uninteresting, in the face of the vast questions which were surging up for settlement all over India, but it is instructive as showing the absolute futility of the India House in its attempts at control, in its inept shilly-shallying between greed of gold and its desire to implant Western ethics on the East. So the quarrel went on, involving amongst other things a duel between Warren Hastings and Mr Francis, in which the latter was badly wounded and had to go home!
Meanwhile, the Mahrattas were more than ever at loggerheads amongst themselves. Ragoba"s claims were readmitted by a large number of the faction who had formerly been against him, and with whom a treaty had been made. They applied for help under that treaty (to reinstate Ragoba this time!) and received it; no doubt all the more readily because that gentleman had been the Bombay Council"s original nominee.
Also because, about this time, the arrival of a French ship at Bombay with a mission purporting to be from Louis XVI. to the Mahratta Court at Poona caused some alarm. For hostilities seemed not far off in Europe between France and England, and the chief member of the so-called emba.s.sy was one Chevalier St Lubin, who was known to have previously been with the Mahratta forces.
And here followeth a welter of confused incidents, claims, and counterclaims, which pages would not suffice to unravel.
The Triumvirate, reduced to two, opposed help. Warren Hastings with his casting vote carried it, but ere the brigade sent from Calcutta arrived at the seat of war, Ragoba"s half of the Poona court had whacked the other half, and having gained ascendency, proposed to do without their candidate!
Here was an _impa.s.se_ for people whose Western minds could not follow such mental somersaults. To add to their confusion, war had been again declared between France and England, and before the Council had had time to recover from their surprise, the victorious Poona party had been again overthrown, and the now ascendant one of Nuna Furnavese was known to harbour Chevalier St Lubin, and to have French proclivities!
There seemed to be nothing for it now save once more to make Ragoba a figurehead.
In truth, as one follows in the maelstrom of Indian intrigue, even as briefly as is possible here, the efforts of these hara.s.sed, distracted Western diplomatists to keep their honour above water, one is filled with pity for them. It would have been better not to fight at all, if their code of ethics forbade them the full use of the weapons used against them.
So the weary Mahratta war dragged on and on, backed at first by the hearty approval of the Court of Directors, who pointed out "the necessity of counteracting the views of the French at Poona."
This same war was full of incident. Scindiah and Holkar flash over its horizon, now in alliance, now in defiance; territories and towns were taken, and lost, and retaken; the whole wide, central plain of India and all the western coast-line was perambulated by soldiery; and in the end, in 1782, a treaty was entered into at Salbai which was utterly disadvantageous to the English, and which wrung from the Bombay presidency the despairing cry that it must "henceforward require from the Bengal treasury a large and annual supply of money"
to carry on the concern.
Meanwhile, in Madras, affairs had not been much more happy. During the war with France, Pondicherry had been a.s.saulted and had capitulated with the honours of war, but in all other ways success was absent.
Friction arose between the presidency and the Nizam over the question of a French garrison, and though the matter was outwardly smoothed over and friendly alliance continued, it formed the basis of a confederation between the Mahrattas, Hyder-Ali, and the Nizam, having for object the _total expulsion of the English from India_.
Hyder-Ali, whose sword had been rusting in its scabbard since the Peace of 1763, had his own private grievance of help promised by treaty and withheld, because the object for which it was asked was deemed unworthy. This was a constant cause of the endless dissensions between the British and the native princes, and shows clearly the absolute folly of attempting, as the Company did, to run with the hare and hunt with the hounds; that is to say, to compound a treaty on one ethical basis, and carry it out on another.
He instantly commenced operations in the Carnatic, and, though the Nizam was bought off by the conciliatory measures of the Bengal Council, continued his attack with unhesitating ferocity. He was, frankly, a murderous madman, who, as the phrase runs, "saw red" on the slightest provocation. But even _his_ excesses were no warrant for Edmund Burke"s blatant rhetoric in his celebrated impeachment, where "menacing meteors blacken horizons," and "burst to pour down contents (?) on peaceful plains" (?). Where "storms of universal fire blast every field," and "fleeing from their flaming villages, miserable inhabitants are swept by whirlwinds of cavalry into captivity in unknown and hostile lands."
What dictionary did Burke use, one wonders, and how comes it that his cheap rhodomontade pa.s.ses for eloquence?
Hyder-Ali, however, made himself very disagreeable, and in the short s.p.a.ce of twenty-nine days brought one disaster after another to the British arms. They began to look on defeat as their portion.
Madras being, apparently, unable to grapple with its enemy, Sir Eyre Coote was sent from Bengal to take command. But he found every military equipment faulty. The commissariat was beneath contempt, and for months the British force was kept stationary, unable to close with Hyder, who, aided by French officers, flashed here and there at his pleasure. But the day of reckoning came on the 1st July 1781, when Hyder-Ali lost ten thousand men, and the English but three hundred and sixty.
Though fortune continued to waver between the combatants, this was practically the turning-point in the war. France, it is true, sent a fleet to interfere on the native side; England sent one to checkmate it; but it was death which finally intervened--death who conquered wild, untamable, almost irresponsible Hyder. He died suddenly, at the age of eighty, from a carbuncle on the neck.
He left a worthy tiger cub behind him, and Tippoo-Sultan continued his father"s fierce fighting with unvarying ferocity and varying success, helped in all ways by the French, so long as that nation continued at war with England. When that ended, he fought still, off his own bat, and the war, which completely crippled Madras, dragged on with markedly increasing arrogance on the one side, and increasing submission on the other, until in 1784, in spite of Tippoo-Sultan"s many vile crimes, his shameless murderings of English officers, his still more terrible offences towards women and children, peace was concluded with him; a peace, certainly, without honour. To the minds of some it may seem the most indelible stain on the reputation of the British in India.
Warren Hastings, at the time the treaty was signed by the other members of the Supreme Council, was in Lucknow, whither he had gone by way of Benares.
The Rajah of this place had in 1775, it will be remembered, found British protection by the treaty with Asaf-daula, Nawab of Oude, which Warren Hastings had condemned as unfair, and of which one of the articles was the cession of Benares. As usual, an immediate dispute arose as to what revenue and charges were to be paid; a dispute which waxed and waned until 1781. There can be no doubt but that on the English side increasing impecuniosity prompted growing demands, while on the Rajah"s side was as constant a desire for the evasion even of just claims.
That Warren Hastings considered his position una.s.sailable is evidenced by the fact that, when, in 1781, on his way to Oude he paused at Benares, he placed the Rajah (who, it may be said, was a man of no family whatever) under arrest in his palace to await further explanations, in the charge of some companies of sepoys who did not even _carry_ ball-cartridge. Palpably, therefore, no violence was intended. It could not have been, since Hastings had but a small escort. Rescue, however, was immediately resolved on by the populace; a general rush was made for the palace, the sepoys were cut to pieces, and the Rajah made good his escape. Almost immediately afterwards, in consequence of the annihilation of a small British relief force from Mirzapore, the whole countryside rose in the Rajah"s interest, and some time elapsed ere a force sufficient to cope with the insurrection could be gathered together. Finally, the Rajah (who had throughout protested his desire for peace, even while preparing at all points for war) fled to a fort, whither he had previously conveyed most of his treasures. Warren Hastings, therefore, at once began to form a new Government. A grandson was selected as successor, the tribute payable was increased, and the whole criminal jurisdiction of the province (which had been wretchedly administered) vested in Bengal. After this the late Rajah was pursued to his fort, whence he fled, leaving his women behind. His mother attempted defence, but finally capitulated on the promise of personal safety and freedom from search; the latter stipulation was, however, undoubtedly violated, as the payment of "10 rupees each to the four female searchers" occurs in the accounts of the incident. But this in no way implicates Warren Hastings, who a.s.serts his great regret that the breach of faith should have occurred. It may be mentioned that some 300,000 was found in the fort, which, with the amount that the Rajah had, doubtless, carried away with him, effectually disposes of a poverty which prevented a payment of 50,000. (These details are necessary because of the great stress laid by Mr Burke in the impeachment on this Benares incident.)
The Governor-General had intended pa.s.sing on to Lucknow, but the Nawab Asaf-daula, put out by the delay at Benares, was in a hurry, and met Warren Hastings at Chunar.
Here a new treaty was signed. It will be remembered that when the last one was entered into on the occasion of Asaf-daula"s accession, Warren Hastings had protested against it as unfair. He now, therefore, exempted the Nawab from all expenses of the English army quartered on him, with the exception of the single brigade arranged for by his father, Sujah-daula, and from all other expenses to English gentlemen excepting the charges of the Resident and his office.
As a set-off to this nothing was exacted; but leave was given to the Nawab to resume certain _jagkirs_, on condition that in all cases where such grants were guaranteed by the Company, equivalent value to the annual revenue should be given yearly. Not an unfair arrangement, since a fixed revenue, though uncertain through the mutability of the person who has to pay it, is less uncertain than one dependent on fluctuating crops.
But there were two _jaghirs_ which, so to speak, filled the Nawab"s eye: they were those held, and illegally held, by his mother and his grandmother. In addition to the vast stretches of land, the revenues of which made these two princesses not only independent, but as possessors of small armies, dangerous factors for strife in internal politics, they were known to possess, and wrongfully possess, the treasure, estimated at 3,000,000, of the late Nawab. To all this they had no possible claim. Under Mahomedan law the widow takes one-eighth only of her husband"s personal possessions, the mother nothing. There is no possibility of will, no possible over-riding of the law. They were, therefore, robbers, and that the Nawab should have refrained from violence for so long is to his credit. This, however, was due to an unwarrantable interference on the part of the British. Mr Bristow, the Resident appointed by the Triumvirate, had, with their consent, and despite Hastings" dissent, guaranteed immunity to Asaf-daula"s mother. As a matter of fact, no foreign power was admissible in a family dispute; in addition, the Begum was in the wrong.
There can be no doubt that Warren Hastings knew the justice of Asaf-daula"s claim to the treasure, or that English troops accompanied the Nawab to Fyzabad, where the Begum resided.