Music Notation and Terminology.
by Karl W. Gehrkens.
PREFACE
The study of _music notation and terminology_ by cla.s.ses in conservatories and in music departments of colleges and normal schools is a comparative innovation, one reason for the non-existence of such courses in the past being the lack of a suitable text-book, in which might be found in related groups clear and accurate definitions of the really essential terms. But with the constantly increasing interest in music study (both private and in the public schools), and with the present persistent demand that music teaching shall become more systematic and therefore more efficient in turning out a more _intelligent_ cla.s.s of pupils, it has become increasingly necessary to establish courses in which the prospective teacher of music (after having had considerable experience with music itself) might acquire a concise and accurate knowledge of a fairly large number of terms, most of which he has probably already encountered as a student, and many of which he knows the general meaning of, but none of which he perhaps knows accurately enough to enable him to impart his knowledge clearly and economically to others.
To meet the need of a text-book for this purpose in his own cla.s.ses the author has been for several years gathering material from all available sources, and it is hoped that the arrangement of this material in related groups as here presented will serve to give the student not only some insight into the present meaning of a goodly number of terms, but will also enable him to see more clearly _why_ certain terms have the meaning which at present attaches to them. To this latter end the derivations of many of the terms are given in connection with their definition.
The aim has not been to present an exhaustive list, and the selection of terms has of course been influenced largely by the author"s own individual experience, hence many teachers will probably feel that important terms have been omitted that should have been included. For this state of affairs no apology is offered except that it would probably be impossible to write a book on this subject which would satisfy everyone in either the selection or actual definition of terms.
In formulating the definitions themselves an attempt has been made to use such words as _note_, _tone_, et cetera with at least a fair degree of accuracy, and while the att.i.tude of the author on this point may be criticized as being puristic and pedantic, it is nevertheless his opinion that the next generation of music students and teachers will be profited by a more accurate use of certain terms that have been inaccurately used for so long that the present generation has to a large extent lost sight of the fact that the use is inaccurate. The author is well aware of the fact that reform is a matter of growth rather than of edict, but he is also of the belief that before reform can actually begin to come, the _need_ of reform must be felt by a fairly large number of actively interested persons. It is precisely because so few musicians realize the need of any change in music terminology that the changes recommended by committees who have given the matter careful thought are so slow in being adopted. It is hoped that some few points at which reform in the terminology of music is necessary may be brought to the attention of a few additional musicians thru this volume, and that the cause may thus be helped in some slight degree.
It is suggested that in using the book for cla.s.s-room purposes the teacher emphasize not only the definition and derivation of all terms studied, but the spelling and p.r.o.nunciation as well. For this latter purpose a p.r.o.nouncing index has been appended.
It is impossible to give credit to all sources from which ideas have been drawn, but especial mention should be made of the eminently clear and beautifully worded definitions compiled by Professor Waldo S. Pratt or the Century Dictionary, and the exceedingly valuable articles on an almost all-inclusive range of topics found in the new edition of Grove"s Dictionary. Especial thanks for valuable suggestions as to the arrangement of the material, etc., are also due to Dr. Raymond H.
Stetson, Professor of Psychology, Oberlin College; Arthur E. Heac.o.x, Professor of Theory, Oberlin Conservatory of Music; and Charles I. Rice, Supervisor of Music, Worcester, Ma.s.s., as well as to various members of the Music Teachers" National a.s.sociation who have offered valuable advice along certain specific lines.
K.W.G.
OBERLIN CONSERVATORY OF MUSIC, _June, 1913_
CHAPTER I
SOME PRINCIPLES OF CORRECT NOTATION
1. The _note_ (from _nota_--Latin--a mark or sign) consists of either one, two, or three parts, ([Ill.u.s.tration]) these being referred to respectively as head, stem, and hook. The hook is often called _tail_ or cross-stroke. The stem appears on the right side of the head when turned up, but on the left side when turned down.[1] [Ill.u.s.tration] The hook is always on the right side.[2] [Ill.u.s.tration]
[Footnote 1: It should be noted at the outset that this statement regarding the down-turned stem on the left side of the note-head, and also a number of similar principles here cited, refer more specifically to music as it appears on the printed page. In the case of hand-copied music the down-turned stem appears on the right side of the note, thus [note symbol]. This is done because of greater facility in writing, and for the same reason other slight modifications of the notation here recommended may sometimes be encountered. In dealing with children it is best usually to follow as closely as possible the principles according to which _printed_ music is notated, in order to avoid those non-satisfying and often embarra.s.sing explanations of differences which will otherwise be unavoidable.]
[Footnote 2: An exception to this rule occurs in the case of notes of unequal value stroked together, when the hook appears on the left side, thus [Ill.u.s.tration].]
In writing music with pen the head and hook are best made with a heavy pressure on the pen point, but in writing at the board they are most easily made by using a piece of chalk about an inch long, turned on its side.
2. When only one part (or voice) is written on the staff, the following _rules for turning stems_ apply: (1) If the note-head is _below_ the third line, the stem must turn up. (2) If the note-head is _above_ the third line the stem must turn down. (3) If the note-head is _on_ the third line the stem is turned either up or down with due regard to the symmetrical appearance of the measure in which the note occurs. The following examples will ill.u.s.trate these points.
[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 1.]
3. When two parts are written on the same staff, the stems of the upper part all turn up, and those of the lower part turn down, in order that the parts may be clearly distinguished. (Fig. 2.) But in music for piano and other instruments on which complete chords can be sounded by _one_ performer and also in simple, four-part vocal music in which all voices have approximately the same rhythm, several notes often have one stem in common as in Fig. 3.
[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 2.]
[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 3.]
4. Notes of small denomination (eighths and smaller) are often written in groups of two or more, all stems in the group being then connected by _one cross-stroke_. In such a case all the stems must of course be turned the same way, the direction being determined by the position of the majority of note-heads in the group. Notes thus _stroked_ may be of the same or of different denomination. See Fig. 4.
[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 4.]
In vocal music notes are never thus stroked when a syllable is given to each note. (See p. 19, Sec. 55, C.)
5. _Rests_, like notes, are best made with a heavy pen stroke or by using a piece of chalk on its side. (See note under Sec. 1.) The double-whole rest, whole rest, and half rest occupy the third s.p.a.ce unless for the sake of clearness in writing two parts on the same staff they are written higher or lower. The rests of smaller denomination may be placed at any point on the staff, the hooks being always placed on the s.p.a.ces. The hook of the eighth rest is usually placed on the _third_ s.p.a.ce. Rests are sometimes dotted, but are never tied.
6. The _G clef_ should be begun at the second line rather than below the staff. Experiments have shown clearly that beginners learn to make it most easily in this way, and the process may be further simplified by dividing it into two parts, thus, [Ill.u.s.tration]. The descending stroke crosses the ascending curve at or near the fourth line. The circular part of the curve occupies approximately the first and second s.p.a.ces.
7. The _F clef_ is made either thus, [ba.s.s clef symbol], or thus, [old ba.s.s clef symbol], the dots being placed one on either side of the fourth line of the staff, which is the particular point that the clef marks. The C _clef_ has also two forms, [C clef symbol] and [tenor clef symbol].
8. The _sharp_ is made with two light vertical strokes, and two heavy slanting ones, the slant of the latter being upward from left to right, [sharp]. The sharp should never be made thus, [Ill.u.s.tration].
The _double sharp_ is made either thus [double-sharp symbol] or [old double-sharp symbol], the first form being at present the more common.
9. The _flat_ is best made by a down stroke retraced part way up, the curve being made without lifting pen from paper. The _double flat_ consists of two flats,[3] [flat][flat]. The _natural_ or _cancel_ is made in two strokes, down-right and right-down, thus [Ill.u.s.tration].
[Footnote 3: It is to be hoped that the figure for the double-flat suggested by Mattheson (who also suggested the St. Andrew"s cross ([symbol]) for the double-sharp) may some time be readopted. This figure was the Greek letter B, made thus, [Greek: b], and its use would make our notation one degree more uniform than it is at present.]
10. The _tie_ usually connects the _heads_ of notes, thus [tie symbol].
11. The _dot after a note_ always appears on a s.p.a.ce, whether the note-head is on a line or s.p.a.ce. (See Fig. 5.) In the case of a dot after a note on a line, the dot usually appears on the s.p.a.ce _above_ that line if the next note is higher in position and on the s.p.a.ce below it if the following note is lower.
[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 5.]
_Note._--Correct notation must be made a habit rather than a theory, and in order to form the habit of writing correctly, _drill_ is necessary. This may perhaps be best secured by asking students to write (at the board or on ruled paper) from verbal dictation, thus: Teacher says,
"Key of B[flat], three-quarter measure: First measure, DO a quarter note, RE a quarter, and MI a quarter. Second measure, SOL a quarter, LA a quarter, and SOL a quarter. Third measure, LA, TI, DO, RE, MI, eighths, stroked in pairs. Fourth measure, high DO a dotted half." Pupils respond by writing the exercise dictated, after which mistakes in the turning of stems, etc., are corrected. The _pitch names_ may be dictated instead of the syllables if desired, and still further practice may be provided by asking that the exercise be transposed to other keys.
CHAPTER II
SYMBOLS OF MUSIC DEFINED
12. A _staff_ is a collection of parallel lines, together with the s.p.a.ces belonging to them. The modern staff has five lines and six s.p.a.ces, these being ordinarily referred to as first line, second line, third line, fourth line, and fifth line (beginning with the lowest); and s.p.a.ce below (_i.e._, s.p.a.ce below the first line), first s.p.a.ce, second s.p.a.ce, third s.p.a.ce, fourth s.p.a.ce, and s.p.a.ce above.
The definition and discussion above refer more specifically to one of the portions of the "great staff," the latter term being often applied to the combination of treble and ba.s.s staffs (with one leger line between) so commonly used in piano music, etc.
13. The _extent of the staff_ may be increased either above or below by the addition of short lines called _leger lines_,[4] and notes may be written on either these lines or on the s.p.a.ces above and below them.
[Footnote 4: The word _leger_ is derived from the French word _LeGER_, meaning light, and this use of the word refers to the fact that the leger lines, being added by hand, are lighter--_i.e._, less solid in color--than the printed lines of the staff itself.]
14. The lines and s.p.a.ces const.i.tuting the staff (including leger lines if any) are often referred to as _staff degrees_, _i.e._, each separate line and s.p.a.ce is considered to be "a degree of the staff." The tones of a scale are also sometimes referred to as "degrees of the scale."