The greatest poem of mediaeval France, the _Roman de la Rose_, was turned into English by his youthful pen, and the chief French poet of the day, Eustace Deschamps, held out to him the hand of fellowship in the enthusiastic _balade_, in which he apostrophised "le grand translateur, n.o.ble Geoffroi Chaucer." Following Chaucer"s example, the great poets of Elizabeth"s reign and of James the First"s reign most liberally and most literally a.s.similated the verse of their French contemporaries, Ronsard, Du Bellay, and Desportes.[42] Early in the seventeenth century, Frenchmen returned the compliment by naturalising in French translations the prose romances of Sir Philip Sidney and Robert Greene, the philosophical essays of Bacon, and the ethical and theological writings of Bishop Joseph Hall. From the accession of Charles the Second until that of George the Third, the English drama framed itself on French models, and Pope, who long filled the throne of a literary dictator in England, acknowledged discipleship to Boileau. A little later the literary philosophers of France--Rousseau and the Encyclopedistes--drew their nutrition from the writings of Hobbes and Locke. French novel-readers of the eighteenth century found their chief joy in the tearful emotions excited by the sentimentalities of Richardson and Sterne. French novel-writers one hundred and thirty years ago had small chance of recognition if they disdained to traffic in the lachrymose wares which the English novelists had brought into fashion.
[Footnote 42: In the Introduction to a collection of Elizabethan Sonnets, published in Messrs Constable"s re-issue of Arber"s _English Garner_ (1904), the present writer has shown that numerous sonnets, which Elizabethan writers issued as original poems, were literal translations from the French of Ronsard, Du Bellay, and Desportes.
Numerous loans of like character were levied silently on Italian authors.]
At the present moment the cultured Englishman finds his most palatable fiction in the publications of Paris. Within recent memory the English playgoer viewed with impatience any theatrical programme which lacked a Parisian flavour. The late Sir Henry Irving, who, during the past generation, sought to sustain the best traditions of the English drama, produced in his last years two original plays, _Robespierre_ and _Dante_, by the _doyen_ of living French dramatists, M. Sardou.
Complementary tendencies are visible across the Channel. The French stage often offers as cordial a reception to plays of English manufacture as is offered in London to the plays derived from France.
No histrionic event attracts higher interest in Paris than the a.s.sumption by a great actor or actress of a Shakespearean role for the first time; and French dramatic critics have been known to generate such heat in debates over the right conception of a Shakespearean character that their differences have required adjustment at the sword"s point.
Of greater interest is it to note that in all the cultivated centres of France a new and unparalleled energy is devoted to-day to the study of English literature of both the present and the past. The research recently expended on the topic by French scholars has not been excelled in Germany, and has rarely been equalled in England. Critical biographies of James Thomson (of _The Seasons_), of Burns, of Young, and of Wordsworth have come of late from the pens of French professors of English literature, and their volumes breathe a minute accuracy and a fulness of sympathetic knowledge which are certainly not habitual to English professors of English literature. This scholarly movement in France shows signs of rapid extension. Each summer vacation sees an increase in the number of French visitors to the British Museum reading-room, who are making recondite researches into English literary history. The new zeal of Frenchmen for English studies claims the most cordial acknowledgment of English scholars, and it is appropriate that the most coveted lectureship on English literature in an English University--the Clark lectureship at Trinity College, Cambridge--should have been bestowed last year on the learned professor of English at the Sorbonne, M. Beljame, author of _Le Public et les Hommes de Lettres en Angleterre au XVIIIe Siecle_. M.
Beljame"s unexpected death (on September 17, 1906), shortly after his work at Cambridge was completed, is a loss alike to English and French letters.
II
In view of the growth of the French interest in English literary history, it was to be expected that serious efforts should be made in France to determine the character and dimensions of the influence exerted on French literature by the greatest of all English men of letters--by Shakespeare. That work has been undertaken by M.
Jusserand. In 1898 he gave to the world the results of his investigation in his native language. Subsequently, with a welcome consideration for the linguistic incapacities of Shakespeare"s countrymen, he repeated his conclusions in their tongue.[43] The English translation is embellished with many pictorial ill.u.s.trations of historic interest and value.
[Footnote 43: _Shakespeare in France under the Ancien Regime_, by J.J.
Jusserand. London: T. Fisher Unwin. 1899.]
Among French writers on English literature, M. Jusserand is the most voluminous and the most widely informed. His career differs in an important particular from that of his countrymen who pursue the same field of study. He is not by profession a teacher or writer: he is a diplomatist, and now holds the high office of French amba.s.sador to the United States of America. M. Jusserand has treated in his books of almost all periods of English literary history, and he has been long engaged on an exhaustive _Literary History of the English People_, of which the two volumes already published bring the narrative as far as the close of the Civil Wars.
M. Jusserand enjoys the rare, although among modern Frenchmen by no means unexampled, faculty of writing with almost equal ease and felicity in both French and English. His walk in life gives him a singularly catholic outlook. His learning is profound, but he is not overburdened by it, and he preserves his native gaiety of style even when solving crabbed problems of bibliography. He is at times discursive, but he is never tedious; and he shows no trace of that philological pedantry and narrowness or obliquity of critical vision which the detailed study of literary history has been known to breed in English and German investigators. While M. Jusserand betrays all the critical independence of his compatriot M. Taine, his habit of careful and laborious research ill.u.s.trates with peculiar vividness the progress which English scholarship has made in France since M. Taine completed his sparkling survey of English literature in 1864.
M. Jusserand handles the theme of _Shakespeare in France under the Ancien Regime_ with all the lightness of touch and wealth of minute detail to which he has accustomed his readers. Nowhere have so many facts been brought together in order to ill.u.s.trate the literary intercourse of Frenchmen and Englishmen between the sixteenth and the nineteenth centuries. It is true that his opening chapters have little concern with Shakespeare, but their intrinsic interest and novelty atone for their irrelevance. They shed a flood of welcome light on that interchange of literary information and ideas which is a constant feature in the literary history of the two countries.
Many will read here for the first time of the great poet Ronsard"s visits to this country; of the distinguished company of English actors which delighted the court of Henry IV. of France; and of Ben Jonson"s discreditable drunken exploits in the French capital when he went thither as tutor to Sir Walter Ralegh"s son. To these episodes might well be added the pleasant personal intercourse of Francis Bacon"s brother, Anthony, with the great French essayist Montaigne, when the Englishman was sojourning at Bordeaux in 1583. Montaigne"s Essays achieved hardly less fame in Elizabethan England than in France. Both Shakespeare and Bacon gave proof of indebtedness to them.
By some freak of fortune Shakespeare"s fame was slow in crossing the English Channel. The French dramatists of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries lived and died in the paradoxical faith that the British drama reached its apogee in the achievement of the Scottish Latinist, George Buchanan, who was reckoned in France "prince of the poets of our day." In Buchanan"s cla.s.sical tragedies Montaigne played a part, while he was a student at Bordeaux. His tragedy of _Jephtha_ achieved exceptional fame in sixteenth century France; three Frenchmen of literary repute rendered it independently into their own language, and each rendering went through several editions. Another delusion which French men of letters cherished, not only during Shakespeare"s lifetime, but through three or four generations after his death, was that Sir Thomas More, Sir Philip Sidney, and the father of Lord Chancellor Bacon were the greatest authors which England had begotten or was likely to beget. French enthusiasm for the suggestive irony of More"s Latin romance of _Utopia_ outran that of his fellow-countrymen.
A French translation antic.i.p.ated the earliest rendering of the work in the author"s native tongue. No less than two independent French versions of Sir Philip Sidney"s voluminous fiction of _Arcadia_ were circulating in France one hundred and twenty years before the like honour was paid to any work of Shakespeare.
Shakespeare"s work first arrived in France towards the close of the seventeenth century. Frenchmen were staggered by its originality. They perceived the dramatist"s colossal breaches of cla.s.sical law. They were shocked by his freedom of speech. When Louis the Fourteenth"s librarian placed on the shelves of the Royal Library in Paris a copy of the Second Folio of his works which had been published in London in 1632, he noted in his catalogue that Shakespeare "has a rather fine imagination; he thinks naturally; but these fine qualities are obscured by the filth he introduces into his comedies." An increasing ma.s.s of pedestrian literature was imported into France from England through the middle and late years of the seventeenth century. Yet Shakespeare had to wait for a fair hearing there till the eighteenth century.
Then it was very gradually that Shakespeare"s pre-eminence was realised by French critics. It is to Voltaire that Frenchmen owe a full knowledge of Shakespeare. Voltaire"s method of teaching Shakespeare to his countrymen was characteristically cynical. He studied him closely when he visited England as a young man. At that period of his career he not merely praised him with discerning caution, but he paid him the flattery of imitation. Voltaire"s tragedy of _Brutus_ betrays an intimate acquaintance with Shakespeare"s _Julius Caesar_. His _Eryphile_ was the product of many perusals of _Hamlet_. His _Zare_ is a pale reflection of _Oth.e.l.lo_. But when Voltaire"s countrymen showed a tendency to better Voltaire"s instruction, and one Frenchman conferred on Shakespeare the t.i.tle of "the G.o.d of the theatre," Voltaire resented the situation that he had himself created. He was at the height of his own fame, and he felt that his reputation as the first of French writers for the stage was in jeopardy.
The last years of Voltaire"s life were therefore consecrated to an endeavour to dethrone the idol which his own hands had set up.
Voltaire traded on the patriotic prejudices of his hearers, but his efforts to depreciate Shakespeare were very partially successful. Few writers of power were ready to second the soured critic, and after Voltaire"s death the Shakespeare cult in France, of which he was the unwilling inaugurator, spread far and wide.
In the nineteenth century Shakespeare was admitted without demur into the French "pantheon of literary G.o.ds." Cla.s.sicists and romanticists vied in doing him honour. The cla.s.sical painter Ingres introduced his portrait into his famous picture of "Homer"s Cortege" (now in the Louvre). The romanticist Victor Hugo recognised only three men as memorable in the history of humanity, and Shakespeare was one of the three; Moses and Homer were the other two. Alfred de Musset became a dramatist under Shakespeare"s spell. To George Sand everything in literature seemed tame by the side of Shakespeare"s poetry. The prince of romancers, the elder Dumas, set the English dramatist next to G.o.d in the cosmic system; "after G.o.d," wrote Dumas, "Shakespeare has created most."
III
It would be easy to multiply eulogies of Shakespeare from French lips in the vein of Victor Hugo and Dumas--eulogies besides which the enthusiasm of many English critics appears cold and constrained. So unfaltering a note of admiration sounds gratefully in the ears of Shakespeare"s countrymen. Yet on closer investigation there seems a rift within the lute. When one turns to the French versions of Shakespeare, for which the chief of Shakespeare"s French encomiasts have made themselves responsible, an Englishman is inclined to moderate his exultation in the French panegyrics.
No one did more as an admiring critic and translator of Shakespeare than Jean Francois Ducis, who prepared six of Shakespeare"s greatest plays for the French stage at the end of the eighteenth century. Not only did Ducis introduce Shakespeare"s masterpieces to thousands of his countrymen who might otherwise never have heard of them, but his renderings of Shakespeare were turned into Italian and many languages of Eastern Europe. They spread the knowledge of Shakespeare"s achievement to the extreme boundaries of the European Continent.
Apparently Ducis did his work under favourable auspices. He corresponded regularly with Garrick, and he was never happier than when studying Shakespeare"s text with a portrait of Shakespeare at his side. Yet, in spite of Ducis"s unquestioned reverence and his honourable intentions, all his translations of Shakespeare are gross perversions of their originals. It is not merely that he is verbally unfaithful. He revises the development of the plots; he gives the _dramatis personae_ new names.
Ducis"s _Oth.e.l.lo_ was accounted his greatest triumph. The play shows Shakespeare"s mastery of the art of tragedy at its highest stage of development, and rewards the closest study. But the French translator ignored the great tragic conception which gives the drama its pith and moment. He converted the piece into a romance. Towards the end of his rendering Iago"s villanies are discovered by Oth.e.l.lo; Oth.e.l.lo and Desdemona are reconciled; and the Moor, exulting in his newly recovered happiness, pardons Iago. The curtain falls on a dazzling scene of domestic bliss.
Ducis frankly acknowledged that he was guilty of a somewhat strained interpretation of Shakespeare"s tragic scheme, but he defended himself on the ground that French refinement and French sensitiveness could not endure the agonising violence of the true catastrophe. It is, indeed, the fact that the patrons of the Comedie Francaise strictly warned the adapter against revolting their feelings by reproducing the "barbarities" that characterised the close of Shakespeare"s tragic masterpiece.
If so fastidious a flinching from tragic episode breathe the true French sentiment, what, we are moved to ask, is the significance of the unqualified regard which Ducis and his countrymen profess for Shakespearean drama? There seems a strange paradox in the situation.
The history of France proves that Frenchmen can face without quailing the direst tragedies which can be wrought in earnest off the stage.
There is a startling inconsistency in the outcry of Ducis"s French clients against the terror of Desdemona"s murder. For the protests which Ducis reports on the part of the Parisians bear the date 1792.
In that year the tragedy of the French Revolution--a tragedy of real life, grimmer than any that Shakespeare imagined--was being enacted in literal truth by the Parisian playgoers themselves. It would seem that Ducis and his countrymen deemed the purpose of art to be alone fulfilled when the artistic fabric was divorced from the ugly facts of life.
A like problem is presented by Dumas"s efforts in more pacific conditions to adapt Shakespeare for the Parisian stage. With his friend Paul Meurice Dumas prepared the version of _Hamlet_ which long enjoyed a standard repute at the Comedie Francaise. Dumas"s ecstatic adoration for Shakespeare"s genius did not deter him, any more than Ducis was deterred by his more subdued veneration, from working havoc on the English text. Shakespeare"s blank verse was necessarily turned into Alexandrines. That was comparatively immaterial. Of greater moment is it to note that the _denouement_ of the tragedy was completely revolutionised by Dumas. The tragic climax is undermined.
Hamlet"s life is spared by Dumas. The hero"s dying exclamation, "The rest is silence," disappears from Dumas"s version. At the close of the play the French translator makes the ghost rejoin his son and good-naturedly promise him indefinite prolongation of his earthly career. According to the gospel of Dumas, the tragedy of Hamlet ends, as soon as his and his father"s wrongs have been avenged, in this fashion:--
_Hamlet._ Et moi, vais-je rester, triste orphelin sur terre, a respirer cet air impregne de misere?...
Est-ce que Dieu sur moi fera peser son bras, Pere? Et quel chatiment m"attend donc?
_Le Fantome._ Tu vivras.
Such defiant transgressions of the true Shakespearean canon as those of which Ducis and Dumas stand convicted may well rouse the suspicion that the critical incense they burn at Shakespeare"s shrine is offered with the tongue in the cheek. But that suspicion is not justified. Ducis and Dumas worship Shakespeare with a whole heart.
Their misapprehensions of his tragic conceptions are due, involuntarily, to native temperament. In point of fact, Ducis and Dumas see Shakespeare through a distorting medium. The two Frenchmen were fully conscious of Shakespeare"s towering greatness. They perceived intuitively that Shakespeare"s tragedies transcended all other dramatic achievement. But their aesthetic sense, which, as far as the drama was concerned, was steeped in the cla.s.sical spirit, set many of the essential features of Shakespeare"s genius outside the focus of their vision.
To a Frenchman a tragedy of cla.s.sical rank connotes "correctness," an absence of tumult, some observance of the cla.s.sical law of unity of time, place, and action. The perpetration of crime in face of the audience outraged all cla.s.sical conventions. Ducis and Dumas recognised involuntarily that certain characteristics of the Shakespearean drama could not live in the cla.s.sical atmosphere of their own theatre. Excision, expansion, reduction was inevitable before Shakespeare could breathe the air of the French stage. The grotesque perversions of Ducis and Dumas were thus not the fruit of mere waywardness, or carelessness, or dishonesty; they admit of philosophical explanation.
By Englishmen they may be viewed with equanimity, if not with satisfaction. They offer strong proof of the irrepressible strength or catholicity of the appeal that Shakespeare"s genius makes to the mind and heart of humanity. His spirit survived the French efforts at mutilation. The Gallicised or cla.s.sicised contortions of his mighty work did not destroy its saving virtue. There is ground for congratulation that Ducis"s and Dumas"s perversions of Shakespeare excited among Frenchmen almost as devoted an homage as the dramatist"s work in its native purity and perfection claims of men whose souls are free of the fetters of cla.s.sical tradition.
IV
If any still doubt the sincerity of the worship which is offered Shakespeare in France, I would direct the sceptic"s attention to a pathetically simple tribute which was paid to the dramatist by a French student in the first year of the last century, when England and France were in the grip of the Napoleonic War. It was then that a young Frenchman proved beyond cavil by an ingenuous confession that the English poet, in spite of the racial differences of aesthetic sentiment, could touch a French heart more deeply than any French or cla.s.sical author. In 1801 there was published at Besancon, "de l"imprimerie de Metoyer," a very thin volume in small octavo, under fifty pages in length, ent.i.tled, _Pensees de Shakespeare, Extraites de ses Ouvrages_. No compiler"s name is mentioned, but there is no doubt that the book was from the pen of a precocious native of Besancon, Charles Nodier, who was in later life to gain distinction as a bibliographer and writer of romance.
This forgotten volume, of which no more than twenty-five copies were printed, and only two or three of these seem to survive, has escaped the notice of M. Jusserand. No copy of it is in the British Museum, or in La Bibliotheque de l"a.r.s.enal, with which the author, Nodier, was long honourably a.s.sociated as librarian. I purchased it a few years ago by accident in a small collection of imperfectly catalogued Shakespeareana. Lurking in the rear of a very ragged regiment on the shelves of the auctioneer stood Charles Nodier"s _Pensees de Shakespeare_. None competed with me for the prize. A very slight effort delivered into my hands the little chaplet of French laurel.
The major part of the volume consists of 190 numbered sentences--each a French rendering of an apophthegm or reflection drawn from Shakespeare"s plays. The translator is not faithful to his English text, but his style is clear and often rises to eloquence. The book does not, however, owe its interest to Nodier"s version of Shakespearean maxims. Nor can one grow enthusiastic over the dedication "A elle"--an unidentified fair-one to whom the youthful writer proffers his homage with respectful propriety. The salt of the little volume lies in the "Observations Preliminaires," which cover less than five widely-printed pages. These observations breathe a genuine affection for Shakespeare"s personality and a sense of grat.i.tude for his achievement in terms which no English admirer has excelled for tenderness and simplicity.
"Shakespeare," writes this French worshipper, "is a friend whom Heaven has given to the unhappy of every age and every country." The writer warns us that he offers no eulogy of Shakespeare; that is to be found in the poet"s works, which the Frenchman for his own part prefers to read and read again rather than waste time in praising them. "The features of Alexander ought only to be preserved by Apelles." Nodier merely collects some of Shakespeare"s thoughts on great moral truths which he thinks to be useful to the conduct of life. But such extracts, he admonishes his reader, supply no true knowledge of Shakespeare. "From Shakespeare"s works one can draw forth a philosophy, but from no systems of philosophy could one construct one page of Shakespeare." Nodier concludes his "Observations" thus:--
"I advise those who do not know Shakespeare to study him in himself. I advise those who know him already to read him again.... I know him, but I must needs declare my admiration for him. I have reviewed my powers, and am content to cast a flower on his grave since I am not able to raise a monument to his memory."
Language like this admits no questioning of its sincerity. Nodier"s modest tribute handsomely atones for his countrymen"s misapprehensions of Shakespeare"s tragic conceptions. None has phrased more delicately or more simply the sense of personal devotion, which is roused by close study of his work.
XI
THE COMMEMORATION OF SHAKESPEARE IN LONDON[44]
[Footnote 44: This paper was first printed in _The Nineteenth Century and After_, April 1905.]
I