The Philippine Agricultural Review.
by Various.
EDITORIAL.
THE SUGAR INDUSTRY.
It is supposed that the sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum) was originally found in India, probably in the region of the Ganges. There is no sugar cane known anywhere to-day in the wild state although there are several species of mammoth gra.s.ses closely akin to this plant.
As various portions of the earth"s surface were explored and finally settled the sugar industry was extended until to-day one finds it flourishing in practically all tropical countries and many subtropical countries as well. Perhaps the last semitropical region to attempt this industry in a commercial way was the State of Arizona, U. S. A., where the desert wastes were turned into flourishing beet and cane fields by the aid of irrigation from the Government storage dam.
During the reign of Napoleon in France trade in the sugars from British and other foreign possessions was destroyed by the war with England but this decline in the cane-sugar trade served only as an impetus to the new beet-sugar industry then being started. In the meantime there was such a dearth of sugar and such a fabulous rise in prices, that attempts were made to secure sugar from various plants and fruits growing in France, such as beets, sorghum, maize, grapes, apples, pears, figs, etc.
At that time the manufacture of a kind of sugar from grapes became quite important so that during the period from 1811 to 1813 considerable quant.i.ties of this cla.s.s of sugar were made. Simultaneously with this new venture the beet root was gaining in importance year by year, especially in France, and to a certain extent as well in other European countries, until after extensive experiments in plant breeding it was learned that the sucrose value of the root could be very much improved. From this work varieties of beets used to-day have evolved which often contain as high as 20 to 25 per cent sucrose. Another obstacle in the way was the bad taste and odor of the low-grade sugars from the beets and the difficulty of making a high-grade sugar. To-day the heavy liming and the carbonation process give a sugar equal in all respects to the best grade of granulated cane sugar, and one finds a great deal of beet sugar either mixed with cane sugar or marketed alone under the name of cane sugar.
At the present time the beet-sugar industry has become so important that more than eight million tons, or about one-half of all the sugar produced, comes from this source.
There is a greater consumption of sugar each year which necessitates greater production either through larger areas, heavier yields, or its manufacture from other sacchariferous plants. The maximum in both area and yield have by no means been reached, while in recent years a large number of sacchariferous plants have attracted the attention of various investigators throughout the sugar world, and this will in all probability lead to a new source of supply. The most promising of these plants is the sugar palm (Arenga saccharifera). Extensive work was conducted on this palm by this Bureau and reported in the May, 1914, number of the Philippine Agricultural Review. During the above-mentioned year an entirely new method of juice clarification was elaborated which is applicable to the juices of various other palms as well as to that of the sugar cane.
In Bengal the wild date palm (Phoenix silvestris) has produced a low grade of mola.s.ses sugar for consumption by the natives for a great number of years. The main obstacle encountered in making a good grade of sugar from this palm has been caused by the difficulty of clarification and the susceptibility of the juice to fermentation. It is thought that the above-mentioned process may bring this palm into greater prominence in the sugar world.
There are also the Palmera (Bora.s.sus flabelliformis) of Southern India, and the Nipa (Nipa fructicans) of the Philippines. Either of these could undoubtedly be made profitable sugar producers. The latter is used commercially only as a source of alcohol.
There is practically no limit to the number of sacchariferous plants one might name in the Tropics and subtropics, but many of these do not contain a sufficient percentage of sucrose, or else they contain such a high percentage of impurities that the low yield of sugar and the high cost of manufacture make their use unprofitable.
CITRUS FRUITS IN THE PHILIPPINES. [1]
By P. J. Wester, Horticulturist in Charge of Lamao Experiment Station.
PRELIMINARY REMARKS.
De Candolle, in his "Origin of Cultivated Plants," discusses 5 species belonging to the genus Citrus: The pomelo, C. dec.u.mana L.; the citron, lemon, and lime, here considered as distinct species, which he includes under the one species, C. medica L.; the sweet orange, C. aurantium L., which he separates from the sour orange and which is also by him considered as a distinct species, C. vulgaris Risso; and finally the mandarin, C. n.o.bilis Lour. Of these, the pomelo, orange, mandarin, lemon, lime, and citron are important pomologically, the sour orange being grown princ.i.p.ally as stock for the other species.
The pomelo is by the same author considered to be indigenous to the Pacific Islands east of Java, the citron and affiliated species to have originated in India, and the sour orange east of India, and all to have been in cultivation for over two thousand years. The antiquity of the orange and mandarin is less, both species being from China and Cochin China.
All these species have been introduced into the Philippine Archipelago, and are well distributed excepting the sour orange, which is rarely seen. The discussion of all species refers to them as found in the Philippines except when otherwise stated.
No very distinct types are found among the oranges or mandarins; the variation in the pomelo is considerable, although, so far as the writer has noted, scarcely enough to warrant the distinction of separate varieties. Both the white and red-fleshed types occur with many gradations, but no studies have been made to note which other correlative characters, if any, are identified with these different forms. The very primitive pomelos (Pl. II, c) that are not infrequently seen in cultivation might indicate that this species is indigenous to the Philippines, though so far as the writer knows the tree has never been seen in the virgin forest. Closer observations have been made on the general type represented by the citron, including the lemon and lime, and several distinct forms have been recognized.
The calamondin, C. mitis Blanco, is well known to be indigenous, as well as the cabuyao and related plants that have been referred to C. histrix DC. In the first-named species there seem to be no very marked variations.
C. histrix was described by De Candolle, flowers and fruits excepted, from a plant growing in Montpellier, being recognized princ.i.p.ally by its long broad-winged petioles and free stamens. The writer has not had the opportunity to see the original description of C. histrix or examine the type specimen, but Swingle refers to it in Jour. of Agri. Research, Vol. I, No. 1, page 10, 1913, as having broadly winged petioles, often larger than the blades, the wings being more gradually narrowed toward the base and usually more abruptly truncate at the tip than C. ichangensis Swingle, making then somewhat triangular in outline.
Within these broad limitations a number of otherwise remarkably distinct forms may be recognized some of which were ill.u.s.trated in a previous publication, Bureau of Agriculture Bulletin No. 27, Citriculture in the Philippines, 1913, and referred to C. histrix with the statement that "some of these forms unquestionably will be recognized as subspecies on closer study, or possibly as separate species." Since then several plants of this type in the citrus collection a.s.sembled at Lamao by the Bureau of Agriculture have bloomed and fruited, affording an opportunity for fuller observations, and these have been further complemented during a trip to Bohol and Cebu in May, 1914, and by the fruits forwarded by Mr. E. F. Southwick.
However, a.s.suming that C. histrix (or some of its subspecies) is the C. histrix of De Candolle, there still remain, on one hand the limao, and on the other the biasong, balincolong, samuyao, samuyao-sa-amoo, as widely different from each other and the cabuyao and its subspecies as for instance the orange, and pomelo, or the mandarin and the calamondin. A very interesting characteristic has been discovered in several of the citrus fruits that have free stamens in the form of a more or less distinct nucleus in the juice cells; this, so far as the writer knows, has not been previously recorded in a citrus fruit. The fact that the presence of these nuclei is not here referred to in some species with free stamens does not necessarily mean that they are absent, considering that fruits of these particular species have not been examined since the first nuclear cells were discovered. The writer is inclined to believe that these nuclei are correlative to those species having free stamens.
To the student in the citrus-growing sections of the United States the characterization of the citron, lemon and lime as given herein is no doubt satisfactory, but in the Philippines various forms called "limon" will appear that do not agree with this and it would then be necessary either to make the descriptions more general so as to cover the additional forms or to cla.s.sify these as species or subspecies. If the barely margined petioles, comparatively small leaves, the green, tender growth and the white corolla are insisted upon for the lime, for instance, it is difficult to know where to place the purple-growthed, th.o.r.n.y, wide-winged, purplish-petaled, subglobose limes with wide-winged leaves of the Philippines. They cannot well be placed with the lemons, and still less with the citron, though they of course show strong relationship to each. The citron group of the genus perhaps more than any other shows the need of further study and systematization of the entire genus.
Attention should be called to the presence in the Philippines of the extremely primitive types of the citron and the lemons; for instance, the fruit ill.u.s.trated in Bulletin No. 27, Plate XVI (c), and colo-colo, as well as the lombog, referred to C. pseudolimonum in this paper.
Of all the plants here discussed, C. micrantha var. microcarpa is botanically furthest removed from the cultivated citrus fruits.
Each considered as a separate species and const.i.tuting perhaps the most complete description of these species published in English, Mr. H. H. Hume"s characterization of the orange, sour orange, mandarin, pomelo, citron, lemon, and lime in his "Citrus Fruits and Their Culture," is here reproduced without alteration. Some writers have grouped several of these as subspecies under one great comprehensive species, but, as Mr. Hume aptly says: "What advantage is there in throwing the sour orange, sweet orange, pomelo, k.u.mquat, and a few other distinctly different trees into one conglomerate species * * *
and then placing each of the aforementioned plants under this species as subspecies and varieties. Such a procedure is more likely to result in further confusion than order."
The species of the genus Citrus that have come under the observation of the writer, with two exceptions, seem naturally to divide themselves into two groups,--(1) those with more or less united filaments and hypogeal cotyledons, and (2) those with free filaments, and (in all instances where there has been an opportunity for observations) with supra-terraneous, distinct cotyledons (fig. 1). In so far as these characteristics have been observed in the Philippine citrus fruits, long and broad-winged petioles are a third correlative feature distinguishing group No. 2; C. ichangensis recently described by Swingle from China also possesses this last feature, but has connate filaments. The alsem and alemow seem to be intermediate between these forms, the alsem being most closely related to those in the first division, the filaments being connate, while the cotyledons in some lots that have been propagated appeared above ground. The alemow is most closely related to group No. 2, the filaments being nearly always free. The general character of the talamisan together with the presence of hypogeal cotyledons tends to the belief that this species has more or less united filaments and thus would belong to the first group.
All descriptions have been made from living plant material either during tours of collection by the writer, or from plants grown at the Lamao experiment station from material sent to the Bureau of Agriculture from time to time since April, 1911. Also, all the material has been collected from plants growing in the yard of some Filipino and so may lay claim to having been domesticated. While this statement may not be altogether reliable it is interesting to note that in Bohol the Filipinos stated that the following trees grew wild in the forest: Among-pong, amontay, balincolong, biasong, canci, colo-colo, limoncito, limao, lombog, and samuyao.
While it is believed that the species described in this paper include most of the more distinctive Philippine citrus fruits, and several hitherto unknown even to the botanist, they do not by any means exhaust the Philippine forms of this genus. Several other forms have been noted, and const.i.tute a part of the citrus collection at Lamao but are not here referred to, for the reason that the material on hand is too incomplete to warrant their description at this time.
Acknowledgements.--The writer is greatly indebted to Mr. E. F. Southwick, superintendent of the demonstration station at Cebu, for his untiring zeal in repeatedly forwarding sets of citrus fruits and budwood from Bohol and Cebu, and for his most valuable a.s.sistance during a collection trip made by him and the writer to Cebu and Bohol in May, 1914, without which it would not have been possible to obtain much of the data and material collected. All the species and varieties credited to Bohol were first called to the attention of the Bureau by Mr. Southwick. Mr. G. W. Weathersbee, formerly agricultural inspector of this Bureau, first called attention to the alemow and has also a.s.sisted in the collection of citrus material in Cebu. Mr. A. M. Burton, formerly superintendent of the Trinidad garden, Benguet, has forwarded fruits and budwood of the cabugao and other fruits. Mr. D. B. Mackie, entomologist of the Bureau, first called attention to a variety of alsem in Bontoc of superior quality. M. G. B. Mead sent the first specimens of Panuban.
DESCRIPTIONS AND COMMENTS.
Citrus aurantium L. Orange.
A tree 7.5 to 12 meters in height, with a compact, conical head; bark grayish brown; thorns generally present, 12 to 50 millimeters long, sharp, stout; leaves oval or ovate oblong, 7.5 to 10 centimeters long, smooth, shining, somewhat lighter below than above, margins entire, or very slightly serrate; petiole 12 to 25 millimeters long, slightly winged (occasionally with quite a broad wing); flowers axillary in cl.u.s.ters of one to six, white, sweet scented, smaller than those of C. vulgaris; calyx cupped; sepals four to five, awl-shaped, thick, greenish, persistent; petals usually five, oblong, 25 to 31 millimeters long, thick, fleshy, recurved; stamens twenty to twenty-five, hypogenous, filaments flattened, united in groups, shorter than the petals; pistil distinctly divided into stigma, style and ovary; stigma k.n.o.b-like; style long and slender; ovary rounded, 10 to 14 loculed; fruit globose to oblate, light orange to reddish; rind smooth; pulp juicy, subacid; juice sacs spindle shaped, sometimes larger than those of C. vulgaris; seeds few or many, oblong ovoid, planoconvex, generally broad, wedged or pointed at the micropylar end, marked with oblique ridges surrounding one or two plain areas. Native to China or Cochin China.
While the orange is nowhere planted in orchards it is fairly well distributed. Judging from the prevalence of the citrus fruits in the markets in the various parts of the Archipelago it ranks fifth in production, as compared with the mandarin, pomelo, lime, and calamondin, the only citrus fruits beside the orange that may claim to be of any economic importance even from a Philippine point of view. Excepting a few budded trees of recent importation or distribution by the Bureau of Agriculture all trees are seedlings and nearly always the fruit is poor in quality.
So far as noted, there are no variations worthy of notice.
Citrus vulgaris Risso. Sour Orange.
(Seville orange, Bigarade orange.)
A small tree, 6 to 9 meters in height, with a dense compact head; young shoots light green, th.o.r.n.y; thorns alternate, small, sharp and pointed, on older wood larger, strong, stiff; leaves unifoliate, evergreen, alternate, ovate, pointed, strongly and peculiarly scented; petiole 12 to 18 millimeters long, broadly winged; flowers in small, axillary cymes, white, strongly sweet scented, somewhat larger than those of C. aurantium; calyx cupped, segments 4 to 5, blunt; petals linear oblong, conspicuously dotted with oil cells; stamens 20 to 24; filaments united in groups; pistil club shaped, smooth; ovary 6 to 14 loculed; fruit orange colored or frequently reddish when well matured, inclined to be rough; rind strongly aromatic, bitter; pulp acid; juice sacs spindle shaped, rather small; seeds flattened and wedged toward the micropylar end, marked with ridged lines. Native to southeastern Asia, probably in Cochin China. Hardier than the sweet orange.
Samples of what seems to be the sour orange have been received from Davao, Mindanao.