Vergil.
by Tenney Frank.
PREFACE
Modern literary criticism has accustomed us to interpret our masterpieces in the light of the author"s daily experiences and the conditions of the society in which he lived. The personalities of very few ancient poets, however, can be realized, and this is perhaps the chief reason why their works seem to the average man so cold and remote. Vergil"s age, with its terribly intense struggles, lies hidden behind the opaque mists of twenty centuries: by his very theory of art the poet has conscientiously drawn a veil between himself and his reader, and the sc.r.a.ps of information about him given us by the fourth century grammarian, Donatus, are inconsistent, at best unauthenticated, and generally irrelevant.
Indeed criticism has dealt hard with Donatus" life of Vergil. It has shown that the meager _Vita_ is a conglomeration of a few chance facts set into a ma.s.s of later conjecture derived from a literal-minded interpretation of the _Eclogues_, to which there gathered during the credulous and neurotic decades of the second and third centuries an accretion of irresponsible gossip.
However, though we have had to reject many of the statements of Donatus, criticism has procured for us more than a fair compensation from another source. A series of detailed studies of the numerous minor poems attributed to Vergil by ancient authors and mediaeval ma.n.u.scripts--till recently p.r.o.nounced unauthentic by modern scholars--has compelled most of us to accept the _Appendix Vergiliana_ at face value. These poems, written in Vergil"s formative years before he had adopted the reserved manner of the cla.s.sical style, are full of personal reminiscences. They reveal many important facts about his daily life, his occupations, his ambitions and his ideals, and best of all they disclose the processes by which the poet during an apprenticeship of ten years developed the mature art of the _Georgics_ and the _Aeneid_. They have made it possible for us to visualize him with a vividness that is granted us in the case of no other Latin poet.
The reason for attempting a new biography of Vergil at the present time is therefore obvious. This essay, conceived with the purpose of centering attention upon the poet"s actual life, has eschewed the larger task of literary criticism and has also avoided the subject of Vergil"s literary sources--a theme to which scholars have generally devoted too much ac.u.men. The book is therefore of brief compa.s.s, but it has been kept to its single theme in the conviction that the reader who will study Vergil"s works as in some measure an outgrowth of the poet"s own experiences will find a new meaning in not a few of their lines.
T.F.
I
MANTUA DIVES AVIS
Among biographical commonplaces one frequently finds the generalization that it is the provincial who acquires the perspective requisite for a true estimate of a nation, and that it is the country-boy reared in lonely communion with himself who attains the deepest knowledge of human nature. If there be some degree of truth in this reflection, Publius Vergilius Maro, the farmer"s boy from the Mantuan plain, was in so far favored at birth. It is the fifteenth of October, 70 B.C., that the Mantuans still hold in pious memory: in 1930 they will doubtless invite Italy and the devout of all nations to celebrate the twentieth centenary of the poet"s birth.
Ancient biographers, little concerned with Mendelian speculation, have not reported from what stock his family sprang. Scientific curiosity and nationalistic egotism have compelled modern biographers to become anthropologists. Vergil has accordingly been referred, by some critic or other, to each of the several peoples that settled the Po Valley in ancient times: the Umbrians, the Etruscans, the Celts, the Latins. The evidence cannot be mustered into a compelling conclusion, but it may be worth while to reject the improbable suppositions.
The name tells little. _Vergilius_ is a good Italic _nomen_ found in all parts of the peninsula,[1] but Latin names came as a matter of course with the gift of citizenship or of the Latin status, and Mantua with the rest of Cisalpine Gaul had received the Latin status nineteen years before Vergil"s birth. The cognomen _Maro_ is in origin a magistrate"s t.i.tle used by Etruscans and Umbrians, but _cognomina_ were a recent fashion in the first century B.C. and were selected by parents of the middle cla.s.ses largely by accident.
[Footnote 1: Braunholz, _The Nationality of Vergil_, _Cla.s.sical Review_, 1915, 104 ff.]
Vergil himself, a good antiquarian, a.s.sures us that in the _heroic_ age Mantua was chiefly Etruscan with enclaves of two other peoples (presumably Umbrians and Venetians). In this he is doubtless following a fairly reliable tradition, accepted all the more willingly because of his intimacy with Maecenas, who was of course Etruscan:[2]
Mantua dives avis, sed non genus omnibus unum, Gens illis triplex, populi sub gente quaterni, Ipsa caput populis; Tusco de sanguine vires.
[Footnote 2: Aeneid, X, 201-3.]
Pliny seems to have supposed this pa.s.sage a description of Mantua in Vergil"s own day: Mantua Tuscorum trans Padum sola reliqua (III. 130).
That could hardly have been Vergil"s meaning, however; for the Celts who flooded the Po Valley four centuries before drove all before them except in the Venetian marshes and the Ligurian hills. They could not have left an Etruscan stronghold in the center of their path. Vergil was probably not Etruscan.
The case for a Celtic origin is equally improbable. From the time when the Senones burned Rome in 390 B.C. till Caesar conquered Gaul, the fear of invasions from this dread race never slumbered. During the weary years of the Punic war when Hannibal drew his fresh recruits from the Po Valley, the determination grew ever stronger that the Alps should become Rome"s barrier line on the North. Accordingly the pacification of the Transpadane region continued with little intermission until Polybius[3]
could say two generations before Vergil"s birth that the Gauls had practically been driven out of the Po Valley, and that they then held but a few villages in the foothills of the Alps. If this be true, the open country of Mantua must have had but few survivors. And the few that remained were not often likely to have the privilege of intermarrying with the Roman settlers who filled the vacuum. Romans were too proud of their citizenship to intermarry with _peregrini_ and raise children who must by Roman laws forego the dignities of citizenship.[4]
[Footnote 3: Polybius, II. 35, 4 (written about 140 B.C.).]
[Footnote 4: Ulpian, _Dig_. V. 8, ex peregrino et cive Romano, peregrinus nascitur.]
A Celtic strain of romance has been from time to time claimed for Vergil"s poetry, though those who employ such terms seldom agree in their definition of them. His romanticism may be more easily explained by his early devotion to the Catullan group of poets, and the Celtic traits--whatever they may be--by the close racial affiliations between Celts and Italians, vouched for by anthropologists. But the difficulty of applying the test of the "Celtic temperament" lies in the fact that there are apparently now no true representatives of the Celtic race from whom to establish a criterion. The peoples that have longest preserved dialects of the Celtic languages appear from anthropometric researches to contain a dominant strain of a different race, perhaps that of the pre-Indo-European inhabitants of Western Europe. It may be, therefore, that what Arnoldians now refer to the "Celts" is after all not Celtic. At best it is unsafe to search for racial traits in the work of genius; in this instance it would but betray loose thinking.
The a.s.sumption of Celtic origin is, therefore, hazardous.[5] There is, however, a strong likelihood that Vergil"s forbears were among the Roman and Latin colonists who went north in search of new homes during the second century B.C. Vergil"s father was certainly a Roman citizen, for none but a citizen could have sent his son to Rome to prepare for a political career. Mantua indeed, a "Latin" town after 89 B.C., did not become a Roman munic.i.p.ality until after Vergil had left it, but Vergil"s father, according to the eighth _Catalepton_, had earlier in his life lived in Cremona. That city was colonized by Roman citizens in 218 B.C.
and recolonized in 190, and though the colonists were reduced to the "Latin status," the magistrates of the town and their descendants secured citizenship from the beginning, and finally in 89 B.C. the whole colony received full citizenship. But quite apart from this, all of Cisalpine Gaul, as the region was called, was receiving immigrants from all parts of Italy throughout the second century, when the fields farther south were being exhausted by long tilling, and were falling into the hands of capitalistic landlords and grazers. Since Roman citizenship was a personal rather than a territorial right, such immigrants could preserve their political status despite their change of habitation. The probabilities are, therefore, that in any case Vergil, though born in the province, was of the old Latin stock.
[Footnote 5: Vergil we know was tall and dark. The Gauls were as a rule fair with light hair. The Etruscans on the other hand, while dark, were generally short of stature. Such data are however not of great importance.]
About the child appropriate stories gathered in time, but what the biographers chose to repeat in the credulous days of Donatus, when Rome was almost an Oriental city, need not detain us long. To Donatus, no doubt, _Magia_ seemed a suitable name for the mother of a poet who knew the mysteries of the lower world; that she dreamed prophetically of the coming greatness of her son, we may grant as a matter of course. Sober judgment, however, can hardly accept the miraculous poplar tree which shot up at the place of nativity, or the birth-stories deriving "Vergilus" from _virga_, contrary to early Latin nomenclature and phonology. It is well to mention these things merely so that we may keep in mind how little faith the late biographers really deserve.
Donatus is also inclined to accept the tradition that Vergil"s father was a potter and a man of very humble circ.u.mstances. That Vergil"s father made pottery may be true; a father"s occupation was apt to be recorded in Augustan biography--but it requires some knowledge of Roman society to comprehend what these words meant at the end of the Republic. In Donatus"
day a "potter" was a day-laborer in loin-cloth and leather ap.r.o.n, earning about twenty cents for a long day of fourteen hours. Needless to say, Vergil"s leisured competence during many years did not draw from such a trickling source. Donatus had forgotten that in Vergil"s day the economic system of Rome was entirely different. At the end of the Republic, the potters of Northern Italy conducted factories of enormous output, for they had with their artistic red-figured ware captured the markets of the whole Mediterranean basin. The actual workmen were not Roman citizens by any means, but slaves. And we should add that while industrial producers, like traders, were in general held in low esteem, because most of them were foreigners and freedmen, the producers of earthenware had by accident escaped from the general odium. The reason was simply that earthenware production began as a legitimate extension of agriculture--it was one form of turning the products of the villa-soil to the best use--and agriculture as we remember (including horticulture and stock-raising) continued into Cicero"s day the only respectable income-bringing occupation in which a Roman senator could engage without apology. That is the reason why even the names of Cicero, Asinius Pollio, and Marcus Aurelius are to be found on brick stamps when it would have been socially impossible for such men to own, shall we say, hardware or clothing factories. Donatus was already so far away from that day that he had no feeling for its social tabus. The property of Vergil"s father--possibly a farm with a pottery on some part of it--could hardly have been small when it supported the young student for many years in his leisured existence at Rome and Naples under the masters that attracted the aristocracy of the capital. The story of Probus, otherwise not very reliable, may, therefore, be true--that sixty soldiers received their allotments from the estates taken from Vergil"s father.
Of no little significance is the fact that Vergil first prepared himself for public life,[6] and progressed so far as to accept one case in court.
In order to enter public life in those days it was customary to train one"s self as widely as possible in literature, history, rhetoric, dialectic, and court procedure, and to attract public notice for election purposes by taking a few cases. It was not every citizen who dared enter such a career. This was the one occupation that the n.o.bility guarded most jealously. While any foreigner or freedman might become a doctor, banker, architect or merchant prince, he could not presume to stand up before a praetor to discuss the rights and wrongs of Roman citizens; and since the advocate"s work was furthermore considered the legitimate preliminary to magisterial offices it must the more carefully be protected. It would have been quite useless for Vergil to prepare for this career had it been obviously closed. We have no sure record in Cicero"s epoch of any young man rising successfully from the business or industrial cla.s.ses to a career in public life except through the abnormal accidents provided by the civil wars. Presumably, therefore, Vergil"s father belonged to a landholding family with some honors of munic.i.p.al service to his credit.
[Footnote 6: Donatus, 15; _Ciris_, l.2; _Catal_. V.; Seneca, _Controv_.
III. praef. 8.]
Of the poet"s physical traits we have no very satisfactory description or likeness. He was tall, dark and rawboned, retaining through life the appearance of a countryman, according to Donatus. He also suffered, says the same writer, the symptoms that accompany tuberculosis. The reliability of this rather inadequate description is supported by a second-century portrait of the poet done in a crude pavement mosaic which has been found in northern Africa.[7] To be sure the technique is so faulty that we cannot possibly consider this a faithful likeness. But we may at least say that the person represented--a man of perhaps forty-five--was tall and loose-jointed, and that his countenance, with its broad brow, penetrating eye, firm nose and generous mouth and chin, is distinctly represented as drawn and emaciated.
[Footnote 7: See _Monuments Piot_. 1897, pl. xx; _Atene e Roma_, 1913, opp. p. 191.]
There is also an unidentified portrait in a half dozen mediocre replicas representing a man of twenty-five or thirty years which some archaeologists are inclined to consider a possible representation of Vergil.[8] It is the so-called "Brutus." The argument for its attribution deserves serious consideration. The bust, while it shows a far younger man than the African mosaic, reveals the same contour of countenance, of brow, nose, cheeks and chin. Furthermore it is difficult to think of any other Roman in private life who attained to such fame that six marble replicas of his portrait should have survived the omnivorous lime-kilns of the dark ages. The Barrocco museum of Rome has a very lifelike replica[9] of this type in half-relief. Though its firm, dry workmanship seems to be of a few decades later than Vergil"s youth it may well be a fairly faithful copy of one of the first busts of Vergil made at the time when the _Eclogues_ had spread his fame through Rome.
[Footnote 8: See British School _Cat. of the Mus. Capitolino_, p. 355; Bernoulli, _Rom. Ikonographie_, I, 187, Helbig,"3 I, no. 872.]
[Footnote 9: Mrs. Strong, _Roman Sculpture_ plate, CIX; Hekler, _Greek and Roman Portraits_, 188 a. The antiquity of this marble has been questioned.]
A land of sound const.i.tutions, mentally and physically, was the frontier region in which Vergil grew to manhood; and had it not later been drained of its st.u.r.dy citizenry by the civil wars and recolonized by the wreckage of those wars it would have become Italy"s mainstay through the Empire.
The earlier Romans and Latins who had first accepted colonial allotments or had migrated severally there for over a century were of sterner stuff than the indolent remnants that had drifted to the city"s corn cribs.
These frontiersmen had come while the Italic stock was still sound, not yet contaminated by the freedmen of Eastern extraction. Cities like Cremona and Mantua were truer guardians of the puritanic ideals of Cato"s day than Rome itself. The clear expressive diction of Catullus" lyrics, full of old-fashioned turns, the sound social ideals of Vergil"s _Georgics_, the buoyant idealism of the _Aeneid_ and of Livy"s annals speak the true language of these people. It is not surprising then that in Vergil"s youth it is a group of fellow-provincials--returning sons of Rome"s former emigrants--that take the lead in the new literary movements. They are vigorous, clever young men, excellently educated, free from the city"s binding traditionalism, well provided also, many of them, with worldly goods acquired in the new rich country. Such were Catullus of Verona, Varius Rufus, Quintilius Varus, Furius, and Alfenus of Cremona, Caecilius of Comum, Helvius Cinna apparently of Brescia, and Valerius Cato who somehow managed to inspire in so many of them a love for poetry.
II
SCHOOL AND WAR
To Cremona, Vergil was sent to school. Caesar, the governor of the province, was now conquering Gaul, and as Cremona was the foremost provincial colony from which Caesar could recruit legionaries, the school boys must have seen many a maniple march off to the battle-fields of Belgium. Those boys read their _Bellum Gallic.u.m_ in the first edition, serial publication. When we remember the devotion of Caesar"s soldiers to their leader, we can hardly be surprised at the poet"s lasting reverence for the great _imperator_. He must have seen the man himself, also, for Cremona was the princ.i.p.al point in the court circuit that Caesar traveled during the winters between his campaigns--whenever the Gauls gave him respite.
The _toga virilis_ Vergil a.s.sumed at fifteen, the year that Pompey and Cra.s.sus entered upon their second consulship--a notice to all the world that the triumvirate had been continued upon terms that made Julius the arbiter of Rome"s destinies.
That same year the boy left Cremona to finish his literary studies in Milan, a city which was now threatening to outstrip Cremona in importance and size. The continuation of his studies in the province instead of at Rome seems to have been fortunate: the spirit of the schools of the north was healthier. At Rome the undue insistence upon a practical education, despite Cicero"s protests, was hurrying boys into cla.s.srooms of rhetoricians who were supposed to turn them into finished public men at an early age; it was a.s.sumed that a political career was every gentleman"s business and that every young man of any pretensions must acquire the art of speaking effectively and of "thinking on his feet."
The claims of pure literature, of philosophy, and of history were accorded too little attention, and the chief drill centered about the technique of declamatory prose. Not that the rhetorical study was itself made absolutely practical. The teachers unfortunately would spin the technical details thin and long to hold profitable students over several years. But their claims that they attained practical ends imposed on the parents, and the system of education suffered.
In the northern province, on the other hand, there was less demand for studies leading directly to the forum. Moreover, some of the best teachers were active there.[1] They were men of catholic tastes, who in their lectures on literature ranged widely over the centuries of Greek masters from Homer to the latest popular poets of the h.e.l.lenistic period and over the Latin poets from Livius to Lucilius. Indeed, the young men trained at Cremona and Milan between the days of Sulla and Caesar were those who in due time pa.s.sed on the torch of literary art at Rome, while the Roman youths were being enticed away into rhetoric. Vergil"s remarkable catholicity of taste and his aversion to the cramping technique of the rhetorical course are probably to be explained in large measure, therefore, by his contact with the teachers of the provinces.
Vergil did not scorn Apollonius because Homer was revered as the supreme master, and though the easy charm of Catullus taught him early to love the "new poetry," he appreciated none the less the rugged force of Ennius. Had his early training been received at Rome, where pedant was pitted against pedant, where every teacher was forced by rivalry into a partizan att.i.tude, and all were compelled by material demands to provide a "practical education," even Vergil"s poetic spirit might have been dulled.
[Footnote 1: Suetonius, _De Gram_. 3.]